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microcystin

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Description

microcystin: microcystins have the general structure cyclo(D-Ala-L-X-D-erythro--methylisoasp-L-Y-Adda-D-isoGlu-N-methyldehydroAla) where X and Y are variable L-amino acids; [Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), National Library of Medicine, extracted Dec-2023]

microcystin : A family of cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins produced by a number of cyanobacteria, the most notable of which is Microcystis, from which the name of the family is derived. Microcystins consist of a heptapeptide macrocycle made up of five non-protein amino acids and two protein amino acids. [Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI), Hastings J, Owen G, Dekker A, Ennis M, Kale N, Muthukrishnan V, Turner S, Swainston N, Mendes P, Steinbeck C. (2016). ChEBI in 2016: Improved services and an expanding collection of metabolites. Nucleic Acids Res]

Cross-References

ID SourceID
PubMed CID56841897
CHEBI ID177791
MeSH IDM0210613

Synonyms (6)

Synonym
77238-39-2
CHEBI:177791
cyanoginosin
(5s,8s,11r,12s,15s,18s,19s,22r)-15-[3-(diaminomethylideneamino)propyl]-18-[(1e,3e,5s,6s)-6-hydroxy-3,5-dimethyl-7-phenylhepta-1,3-dienyl]-1,5,12,19,21-pentamethyl-2-methylidene-8-(2-methylpropyl)-3,6,9,13,16,20,25-heptaoxo-1,4,7,10,14,17,21-heptazacyclope
microcystin
fast-death factor

Research Excerpts

Overview

Microcystin is a hepatotoxin that causes tissue damage and even death in animals, including humans. Its detoxification process may involve biotransformation and activation of the antioxidant defense system.

ExcerptReferenceRelevance
"Microcystins are a group of heptapeptide hepatotoxins produced by a variety of algae and are frequently detected in aquatic ecosystems, posing a global threat to ecological stability and human health. "( Removal of microcystins from water and primary treatment technologies - A comprehensive understanding based on bibliometric and content analysis, 1991-2020.
Ding, Q; Pu, Y; Song, X; Sun, R; Yin, L; Yuan, M; Zhang, J, 2022
)
2.55
"Microcystin is a hepatotoxin that causes tissue damage and even death in animals, including humans; its detoxification process may involve biotransformation and activation of the antioxidant defense system."( Biotransformations, Antioxidant System Responses, and Histopathological Indexes in the Liver of Fish Exposed to Cyanobacterial Extract.
Cestari, MM; Fernandes, JB; Fernandes, MN; Giani, A; Paulino, MG; Pesenti, E; Sakuragui, MM; Tavares, D; Terezan, AP, 2020
)
1.28
"Microcystin (MC) is a cyclic heptapeptide toxin. "( Effect of microcystin on the expression of Nrf2 and its downstream antioxidant genes from Cristaria plicata.
Dong, J; Hu, BQ; Jian, SQ; Liu, WX; Qian, GM; Wen, CG; Wu, JL; Yang, G, 2020
)
2.4
"Microcystins (MC) are a group of cyanobacterial toxins that comprises MC-LF and other cyclic heptapeptides, best known as potent hepatotoxicants. "( Examination of microcystin neurotoxicity using central and peripheral human neurons.
Dietrich, DR; Gutbier, S; Hoelting, L; Klima, S; Leist, M; Suciu, I; Waldmann, T, 2021
)
2.42
"Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is a potent hepatotoxin that can cause liver inflammation and injury. "( An identified PfHMGB1 promotes microcystin-LR-induced liver injury of yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco).
Fan, Y; Ke, F; Shi, J; Wang, F; Wang, Y; Xiao, X; Xie, Z; Yang, Z; Yue, J, 2021
)
2.35
"Microcystin (MC) is a hepatotoxin produced by various cyanobacteria during harmful algal blooms (HAB's) in freshwater environments. "( Simple and practical on-site treatment of high microcystin levels in water using polypropylene plastic.
Lee, J; Mrdjen, I, 2018
)
2.18
"The microcystins are a large group of cyclic peptide hepatotoxins produced by several genera of freshwater cyanobacteria. "( Mutagenesis of the Microcystin Tailoring and Transport Proteins in a Heterologous Cyanotoxin Expression System.
Liu, T; Mazmouz, R; Neilan, BA; Pearson, LA, 2019
)
1.4
"Microcystins are a family of cyclic peptide toxins produced by cyanobacteria. "( The genetic basis for O-acetylation of the microcystin toxin in cyanobacteria.
Fewer, DP; Jokela, J; Kaasalainen, U; Österholm, J; Rikkinen, J; Rouhiainen, L; Sivonen, K; Wahlsten, M, 2013
)
2.1
"Microcystin is a sort of cyclic nonribosomal peptides produced by cyanobacteria. "( Insights into the selective binding and toxic mechanism of microcystin to catalase.
Da, L; Hu, Y, 2014
)
2.09
"Microcystins (MCs) are a group of biotoxins (>150) produced by cyanobacteria, with a worldwide distribution. "( Multihapten approach leading to a sensitive ELISA with broad cross-reactivity to microcystins and nodularin.
Ballot, A; Løvberg, KE; Miles, CO; Samdal, IA, 2014
)
2.07
"Microcystin is a common and well-known cyanobacterial toxin whose intracellular role is still under investigation. "( Microcystin production and regulation under nutrient stress conditions in toxic microcystis strains.
Giani, A; Pimentel, JS, 2014
)
3.29
"Microcystin is a hepatoxin released by cyanobacteria in certain harmful algal blooms."( Community Needs Assessment After Microcystin Toxin Contamination of a Municipal Water Supply - Lucas County, Ohio, September 2014.
Billing, L; DiOrio, M; Eitniear, S; McCarty, CL; Nelson, L; Zabala, A; Zgodzinski, E, 2016
)
1.44
"Microcystin is a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin that is found worldwide, and poses a serious threat to the ecological communities in which it is found as well as to those who rely on these waters for drinking, sanitation, or as a food source. "( Evaluating microcystin exposure risk through fish consumption.
Guildford, SJ; Hecky, RE; Poste, AE, 2011
)
2.2
"Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is a cyanobacterial heptapeptide that presents acute and chronic hazards to animal and human health. "( Toxicity of microcystin from cyanobacteria growing in a source of drinking water.
Majsterek, I; Sicinska, P; Tarczynska, M; Walter, Z; Zalewski, M, 2004
)
2.15
"Microcystins are a family of heptapeptide hepatotoxins produced by some genera of cyanobacteria. "( Optimization of intracellular microcystin extraction for their subsequent analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography.
Barco, M; Caixach, J; Lawton, LA; Rivera, J, 2005
)
2.06
"Microcystins (MCs) are a family of natural toxins produced by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). "( Removal of microcystins by phototrophic biofilms. A microcosm study.
Babica, P; Bláha, L; Marsálek, B, 2005
)
2.16
"Microcystins (MCs) are a family of toxic peptides produced by a number of cyanobacteria commonly found in lakes, water reservoirs, and recreational facilities. "( Ultrasonically induced degradation of microcystin-LR and -RR: identification of products, effect of pH, formation and destruction of peroxides.
de la Cruz, AA; O'Shea, KE; Rein, K; Song, W, 2006
)
2.05
"Free microcystins appear to be a small but variable subset of total microcystins present in human serum."( Serologic evaluation of human microcystin exposure.
Azevedo, SM; Barton, HA; Carmichael, WW; Hilborn, ED; Servaites, JC; Soares, RM; Yuan, M, 2007
)
1.08
"Microcystins (MCs) are a family of related cyclic hepatotoxic heptapeptides, of which more than 70 types have been identified. "( Kinetic study of the 2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutanoic acid produced by oxidation of microcystin in aqueous solutions.
Chen, X; Gong, Y; Li, R; Wang, Z; Wu, X; Xiao, B, 2008
)
2.01
"Microcystin-LR is a liver tumor promoter in the okadaic acid class, a group of potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. "( Suppression by carotenoids of microcystin-induced morphological changes in mouse hepatocytes.
Matsushima-Nishiwaki, R; Moriwaki, H; Muto, Y; Nishiwaki, S; Shidoji, Y; Yamada, T, 1995
)
2.02
"Microcystins are a family of more than 50 structurally similar hepatotoxins produced by species of freshwater cyanobacteria, primarily Microcystis aeruginosa. "( The toxicology of microcystins.
Dawson, RM, 1998
)
2.08
"Microcystins are a group of highly liver-specific toxins, although their exact mechanisms of action remain unclear. "( Microcystic cyanobacteria extract induces cytoskeletal disruption and intracellular glutathione alteration in hepatocytes.
Ding, WX; Ong, CN; Shen, HM, 2000
)
1.75
"Microcystins are a group of structurally similar cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins and tumor promoters, produced by cyanobacteria. "( Direct analysis of microcystins by microbore liquid chromatography electrospray ionization ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry.
Beattie, KA; Codd, GA; Henion, JD; Poon, GK; Zweigenbaum, JA, 2000
)
2.08
"Microcystins (MCs) are a group of closely related toxic cyclic heptapeptides produced by common cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). "( Production and specificity of mono and polyclonal antibodies against microcystins conjugated through N-methyldehydroalanine.
Dietrich, D; Eriksson, JE; Härmälä-Braskén, AS; Meriluoto, J; Mikhailov, A; Sorokina, Y, 2001
)
1.99
"Microcystins are an increasingly important group of bioactive compounds produced by a number of mainly planktonic cyanobacteria. "( Purification of microcystins.
Edwards, C; Lawton, LA, 2001
)
2.1
"Microcystin is a potent inhibitor of eukaryotic protein phosphatases and has been implicated in causing hepatotoxicity to humans and animals worldwide. "( Altered expression of two light-dependent genes in a microcystin-lacking mutant of Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806.
Börner, T; Dittmann, E; Erhard, M; Kaebernick, M; Neilan, BA; Scheler, C; von Döhren, H, 2001
)
2
"Microcystins are a group of liver-specific toxins generated by cyanobacteria."( Critical role of reactive oxygen species formation in microcystin-induced cytoskeleton disruption in primary cultured hepatocytes.
Ding, WX; Ong, CN; Shen, HM, 2001
)
1.28

Effects

Microcystins have been detected in raw and finished drinking water using a variety of techniques. Microcystin exposure has been shown to affect growth rate and osmoregulation, increase liver enzyme activities in the serum.

ExcerptReferenceRelevance
"As microcystin structure has a significant impact on transporter selectivity, it is potentially possible to develop analogs with even more pronounced OATP1B3 selectivity and thus enable their development as anticancer drugs."( Selectivity and potency of microcystin congeners against OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 expressing cancer cells.
Daily, A; Moscow, JA; Niedermeyer, TH; Swiatecka-Hagenbruch, M, 2014
)
1.21
"Microcystin variants have been isolated and tested for cytotoxicity in cancer cells stably transfected with OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 transporters."( Selectivity and potency of microcystin congeners against OATP1B1 and OATP1B3 expressing cancer cells.
Daily, A; Moscow, JA; Niedermeyer, TH; Swiatecka-Hagenbruch, M, 2014
)
1.42
"Microcystins have been detected in raw and finished drinking water using a variety of techniques, including assays (immunoassay, phosphatase inhibition) and HPLC (UV, MS/(MS)). "( Using the MMPB technique to confirm microcystin concentrations in water measured by ELISA and HPLC (UV, MS, MS/MS).
Aubel, MT; Foss, AJ, 2015
)
2.13
"Microcystin exposure has been shown to affect growth rate and osmoregulation, increase liver enzyme activities in the serum and heart rate, modify behavior, and exert histopathological effects in the liver, intestine, kidneys, heart, spleen, or gills, but the degree to which these effects were seen depends on the exposure route."( Effects of microcystins on fish.
Kestemont, P; Malbrouck, C, 2006
)
1.45
"Microcystin (MC) has been found in several areas of the world. "( Effect of microcystin on leukocyte viability and function.
Azevedo, SM; Canziani, ME; Cendoroglo, M; Dalboni, MA; Draibe, S; Gonçalves, EA; Magalhães, VF; Manfredi, AP; Manfredi, SR; Peres, AT, 2006
)
2.18

Actions

ExcerptReferenceRelevance
"Microcystins specifically inhibit the eukaryotic protein phosphatases 1 and 2A."( Microcystin biosynthesis in planktothrix: genes, evolution, and manipulation.
Börner, T; Christiansen, G; Dittmann, E; Erhard, M; Fastner, J, 2003
)
2.48

Toxicity

The adverse effects of microcystin (MC) produced by cyanobacteria have drawn considerable attention from the public. The present study examined toxic effects on heart muscle of rats intravenously injected with extracted MC at two doses, 0.1 and 0.5mg.

ExcerptReferenceRelevance
" Mcyst hepatotoxicity is therefore a direct consequence of PP inhibition in hepatocytes, the loss of sinusoidal integrity following from the primary toxic insult to the hepatocyte."( Differential toxicity of the protein phosphatase inhibitors microcystin and calyculin A.
Berndt, N; Deleve, LD; Govindarajan, S; Maddatu, T; Runnegar, MT, 1995
)
0.53
"Microcystin has obvious hepatotoxicity and the formation of ROS may play a certain role in its toxic effect on the rat liver cells."( [Hepatotoxicity and formation of reactive oxygen species induced by microcystis aeruginosa toxin].
Ding, W; Shen, H; Zhu, H, 1998
)
1.74
"The water pollution of toxic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is a worldwide problem and worsens with industrialization."( Genotoxicity of microcystic cyanobacteria extract of a water source in China.
Ding, WX; Lee, BL; Ong, CN; Shen, HM; Zhu, HG, 1999
)
0.3
"Microcystins are toxins produced by cyanobacteria, being toxic to aquatic fauna."( Toxic effects of microcystins in the hepatopancreas of the estuarine crab Chasmagnathus granulatus (Decapoda, Grapsidae).
Bianchini, A; Luquet, CM; Monserrat, JM; Moura da Rosa, C; Pinho, GL; Yunes, JS, 2003
)
2.1
" The grazing ability of silver carp on toxic cyanobacteria suggests an applicability of using phytoplanktivorous fish to counteract cyanotoxin contamination in eutrophic waters."( Dynamics of microcystins-LR and -RR in the phytoplanktivorous silver carp in a sub-chronic toxicity experiment.
Honma, T; Ozawa, K; Park, HD; Xie, L; Xie, P; Yokoyama, A, 2004
)
0.7
" We suggest that it might be considered as a defensive signal of mitochondria against low concentration of a toxic compound."( Toxicity of microcystin from cyanobacteria growing in a source of drinking water.
Majsterek, I; Sicinska, P; Tarczynska, M; Walter, Z; Zalewski, M, 2004
)
0.7
" The acute tests with cladocerans were effective in indicating the toxicity of the crude cyanobacterial extract and in prognostiating the toxic effects of cyanobacterial blooms, at least on some usual components of the aquatic community, such as microcrustaceans."( Toxicity of a cyanobacteria bloom in Barra Bonita Reservoir (Middle Tietê River, São Paulo, Brazil).
Nonaka, KO; Rocha, O; Silva, CR; Sotero-Santos, RB; Verani, NF, 2006
)
0.33
" The results showed a wide range of responses with strains showing no signs of poisoning and strains producing protracted or slightly protracted toxic effects."( Toxicity of culturable cyanobacteria strains isolated from the Portuguese coast.
Fastner, J; Martins, R; Pereira, P; Vasconcelos, VM; Welker, M, 2005
)
0.33
" The intact cells as well as the toxins released after cellular lysis can be responsible for toxic effects in both animals and humans and are actually associated with fish kills."( Toxic effects produced by microcystins from a natural cyanobacterial bloom and a Microcystis aeruginosa isolated strain on the fish cell lines RTG-2 and PLHC-1.
Camean, AM; Jos, A; Pichardo, S; Repetto, G; Salguero, M; Zurita, J, 2006
)
0.63
"During a cyanobacterial bloom in a eutrophic environment, particularly at the end when decomposition occurs, toxic compounds such as the cyanotoxins and the lipopolysaccharides can be released in high concentrations into the water column damaging aquatic organisms."( Evaluation of cyanobacteria toxicity in tropical reservoirs using crude extracts bioassay with cladocerans.
Okumura, DT; Rocha, O; Sotero-Santos, RB; Takenaka, RA, 2007
)
0.34
" However, there were scarcely reports in toxic effects of microcystins on isolated hepatocytes of fishes, especially investigation of microcystin-induced apoptosis and/or necrosis in carp hepatocytes."( Toxicity of microcystins in the isolated hepatocytes of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).
Li, XY; Liang, JB; Liu, YD; Wang, J, 2007
)
0.96
"The occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria in the aquatic environment constitutes a serious risk for the ecological balance and the functioning of ecosystems."( Phytotoxic effects of cyanobacteria extract on the aquatic plant Lemna gibba: microcystin accumulation, detoxication and oxidative stress induction.
Bouarab, L; del Campo, FF; Ghazali, IE; Hadrami, IE; Hassni, ME; Ouahid, Y; Oudra, B; Saqrane, S; Vasconcelos, V, 2007
)
0.57
" The cyanobacteria were from a culture collection established for public health purposes to detect toxic cyanobacterial blooms, and 54 of them were tested for toxicity by the mouse bioassay."( The apoptosis-inducing activity towards leukemia and lymphoma cells in a cyanobacterial culture collection is not associated with mouse bioassay toxicity.
Coyne, RT; Døskeland, SO; Edvardsen, B; Herfindal, L; Oftedal, L; Rohrlack, T; Skjærven, KH; Skulberg, OM, 2011
)
0.37
" In the present study, we investigated membrane transport of MC-LR and its toxic effects on zebrafish embryos using fragmentation of embryos, scanning electron microscope (SEM), fluorescence microscopy, and toxic exposure tests."( Transmembrane transport of microcystin to Danio rerio zygotes: insights into the developmental toxicity of environmental contaminants.
Gao, HW; Song, C; Wu, LL, 2011
)
0.67
" Since cyanobacterial toxins are released with other molecules in the aquatic environment when the producers are dying, in this study, we performed additional experiments in order to compare the described effects obtained with the pure toxin microcystin-LR (MC-LR), among the most toxic MCs, to those induced by complex extracts of an MCs-producer Planktothrix agardhii, strain PMC 75."( Oral toxicity of extracts of the microcystin-containing cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii to the medaka fish (Oryzias latipes).
Bernard, C; Comte, K; Djediat, C; Edery, M; Malécot, M; Moyenga, D; Puiseux-Dao, S; Yéprémian, C, 2011
)
0.83
" Cytotoxicity and specific toxic potencies of products of freshwater cyanobacteria were determined by use of in vitro reporter gene trans-activation assays."( In vitro modulation of intracellular receptor signaling and cytotoxicity induced by extracts of cyanobacteria, complex water blooms and their fractions.
Ambrožová, L; Bláha, L; Giesy, JP; Hilscherová, K; Stěpánková, T, 2011
)
0.37
" These results indicate that cyanobacterial water blooms are highly toxic to zooplankton (both acutely and chronically) at environmentally relevant concentrations."( Acute, chronic and reproductive toxicity of complex cyanobacterial blooms in Daphnia magna and the role of microcystins.
Babica, P; Bláha, L; Haeba, M; Hilscherová, K; Jarque, S; Maršálek, B; Smutná, M, 2014
)
0.62
" The toxic strain was classified as Microcystin aeruginosa by morphologic and phylogenetic tree analysis."( [Isolation and cultivation of a wild microcytin-RR-producing cyanobacterium and verification of its toxin by high performance liquid chromatography and acute oral toxicity].
Gao, M; Gu, K; Huang, X; Wang, W; Xiao, W; Zhang, Y; Zhong, Q, 2014
)
0.68
" The LD50 of the extracted MC-RR administered by oral route to mice is (12."( [Isolation and cultivation of a wild microcytin-RR-producing cyanobacterium and verification of its toxin by high performance liquid chromatography and acute oral toxicity].
Gao, M; Gu, K; Huang, X; Wang, W; Xiao, W; Zhang, Y; Zhong, Q, 2014
)
0.4
"The adverse effects of microcystin (MC) produced by cyanobacteria have drawn considerable attention from the public."( Cadmium toxicity to Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 and its microcystin-lacking mutant.
Huang, B; Miao, AJ; Xiao, L; Xu, S; Yang, LY, 2015
)
0.97
" The results highlighted the necessity to classify the ST-values in different periods referring to the main MC congeners rather than MC-LR, which will facilitate the management and control of toxic cyanobacterial proliferation in drinking water sources."( The establishment of preliminary safety threshold values for cyanobacteria based on periodic variations in different microcystin congeners in Lake Chaohu, China.
Chen, X; Feng, M; Ke, F; Li, W; Liu, F; Shang, L; Xu, X, 2015
)
0.63
"In the present study, we evaluated the toxic effects on the testis of the male offspring of MC-LR exposure during fetal and lactational periods."( Roles of piRNAs in microcystin-leucine-arginine (MC-LR) induced reproductive toxicity in testis on male offspring.
Benson, M; Han, X; Li, D; Zhang, H; Zhang, L, 2017
)
0.78
" aeruginosa causes potential adverse effects on fish reproduction in Microcystis bloom-contaminated aquatic environments."( Reproductive and endocrine-disrupting toxicity of Microcystis aeruginosa in female zebrafish.
Fan, X; Ke, M; Liu, G; Lu, T; Qian, H; Sun, L; Zhang, M; Zhu, Y, 2018
)
0.48
" The toxic events started only after the introduction of the dietary products."( Hepatotoxicity induced by paclitaxel interaction with turmeric in association with a microcystin from a contaminated dietary supplement.
Azevedo, J; Campos, MG; Costa, ML; Eiras, E; Rodrigues, JA; Vasconcelos, V, 2018
)
0.7
"Cyanobacterial blooms represent a significant risk to environmental and human health due to their production of toxic secondary metabolites, cyanopeptides."( Anabaenopeptins and cyanopeptolins induce systemic toxicity effects in a model organism the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.
Lenz, KA; Ma, H; Miller, TR, 2019
)
0.51
" The results of the investigation into algal growth inhibition, chlorophyll a content, and cell integrity indicated that ( S)-metolachlor [( S)-Met] was significantly more toxic than any other isomer."( Enantioselective Toxicity of Chiral Herbicide Metolachlor to Microcystis aeruginosa.
Chen, H; Chen, S; Chen, Z; Wen, Y; Zhang, L, 2019
)
0.51
" These toxic secondary metabolites are classified as hepatotoxins and cytotoxin, respectively."( Neurotoxicity induced by microcystins and cylindrospermopsin: A review.
Cameán, AM; Gutiérrez-Praena, D; Guzmán-Guillén, R; Hinojosa, MG; Jos, A; Prieto, AI, 2019
)
0.82
" The guidelines for MC-LR safe exposure limits have been previously established based on healthy animal studies, however we have previously demonstrated that pre-existing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) increases susceptiblity to the hepatotoxic effects of MC-LR."( Assessment of diagnostic biomarkers of liver injury in the setting of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) hepatotoxicity.
Breidenbach, JD; Haller, ST; Kennedy, DJ; Kleinhenz, AL; Lad, A; Malhotra, D; Modyanov, N; Su, RC, 2020
)
0.79
" The adverse effect concentrations observed here were orders of magnitude higher than those presumed to be encountered after normal nutritional or environmental exposure."( Examination of microcystin neurotoxicity using central and peripheral human neurons.
Dietrich, DR; Gutbier, S; Hoelting, L; Klima, S; Leist, M; Suciu, I; Waldmann, T, 2021
)
0.97
" The ADMET Predictor® software (absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, and toxicity [ADMET]) was used in this work to predict toxic effects of microcystin variants MC-LR, MC-YR, MC-RR, and MC-HarHar."( New insights into toxicity of microcystins produced by cyanobacteria using in silico ADMET prediction.
da Silva, CG; Duque, MD; Freire Nordi, CS; Viana-Niero, C, 2021
)
1.11
" The classic toxic mechanism of MCs is the inhibition of the protein phosphatases 1 and 2A (PP1 and PP2A)."( Microcystin-Induced Immunotoxicity in Fishes: A Scoping Review.
Hung, TC; Kurobe, T; Lin, W; Wang, Y; Yang, P, 2021
)
2.06
"Global warming and eutrophication may lead to increased incidence of harmful algal blooms and related production of cyanotoxins that can be toxic to aquatic plants."( Phytotoxic effects of microcystins, anatoxin-a and cylindrospermopsin to aquatic plants: A meta-analysis.
Munoz, G; Sauvé, S; Vo Duy, S; Zhang, Y, 2022
)
1.04

Compound-Compound Interactions

ExcerptReferenceRelevance
" In this present study, a novel double-sided magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer modified graphene oxide (DS-MMIP@GO) based magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) method was developed for fast, effective and selective enrichment, and recognition of trace MCs in environmental water samples combined with high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)."( Double-sided magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer modified graphene oxide for highly efficient enrichment and fast detection of trace-level microcystins from large-volume water samples combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
Cai, MQ; Chen, XH; Jin, MC; Li, XP; Pan, SD; Shen, HY; Zhao, YG, 2015
)
0.62

Dosage Studied

The study was carried out on skates given 125 microg/kg microcystin. PP activity was still 95% inhibited 7 days after dosing in skates.

ExcerptRelevanceReference
" To elucidate its promoting activity, the target cells were first exposed to a low dosage of 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA) and then to MRT."( Promoting activity of microcystins extracted from waterblooms in SHE cell transformation assay.
Wangth, HB; Zhuth, HG, 1996
)
0.61
" Substitution of C-terminal sequences from the PP2A catalytic subunit produced a chimeric enzyme, CRHM2, that was inhibited by toxins with dose-response characteristics of PP1 and not PP2A."( Importance of the beta12-beta13 loop in protein phosphatase-1 catalytic subunit for inhibition by toxins and mammalian protein inhibitors.
Barik, S; Connor, JH; Honkanen, RE; Kleeman, T; Shenolikar, S, 1999
)
0.3
" PP activity was still 95% inhibited 7 days after dosing in skates given 125 microg/kg microcystin."( Hepatic toxicity and persistence of ser/thr protein phosphatase inhibition by microcystin in the little skate Raja erinacea.
Ballatori, N; Boyer, JL; Crawford, JM; Runnegar, M; Seward, DJ, 1999
)
0.75
" One experiment was carried out with dissolved microcystins extracted from a cyanobacterial bloom on one of Berlin's lakes, dosed as short-term, single-pulse application."( Removal of microcystins by slow sand filtration.
Bartel, H; Böttcher, G; Chorus, I; Grützmacher, G, 2002
)
0.96
" Using the P53(def) transgenic mouse model male and female C57BL/6J hybrid mice were used to investigate potential cancer inducing effects from such oral dosing solutions."( Toxicological aspects of treatment to remove cyanobacterial toxins from drinking water determined using the heterozygous P53 transgenic mouse model.
Seawright, A; Senogles-Derham, PJ; Shahin, M; Shaw, G; Wickramisingh, W, 2003
)
0.32
" Drinking rate increased with increasing dosage of bacterial LPS alone."( Effects of Microcystis cells, cell extracts and lipopolysaccharide on drinking and liver function in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum.
Best, JH; Codd, GA; Eddy, FB, 2003
)
0.32
"5 mg L(-1) as Cu(2+)) which is advantageous for water authorities dosing such algicides into water bodies to control cyanobacterial blooms."( Biodegradation of multiple cyanobacterial metabolites in drinking water supplies.
Ho, L; Hoefel, D; Monis, PT; Tang, T, 2012
)
0.38
"3-fold of that for the single exposure group I (MC-LR) and II (LPS), respectively), and there existed a significant dose-response relationship."( [Joint effects of apoptosis induced by microcystins and bacterial lipopolysaccharides on grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) lymphocytes].
Fang, WD; Wu, YH; Zhang, HJ, 2014
)
0.67
" aeruginosa biomass when dosed at 4 or 8 mg L-1, but not at 1 and 2 mg L-1."( Effects of hydrogen peroxide and ultrasound on biomass reduction and toxin release in the cyanobacterium, Microcystis aeruginosa.
Faassen, EJ; Lürling, M; Meng, D, 2014
)
0.4
" Presence of metal ions, natural organic matter (NOM), and other chemicals demand higher dosage and hence affect the activation energy to efficiently break down the cyanotoxin molecule."( Potential of biological approaches for cyanotoxin removal from drinking water: A review.
Brar, SK; Cledon, M; Hegde, K; Kermanshahi-Pour, A; Kumar, P, 2019
)
0.51
" CD-1 mice were divided into three dosage groups: control, low exposure (sub-lethal MC-LR concentration), and high exposure (near-lethal MC-LR concentration)."( Acute cyanotoxin poisoning reveals a marginal effect on mouse gut microbiome composition but indicates metabolic shifts related to liver and gut inflammation.
Evans, MV; Knobloch, T; Lee, J; Lee, S; Mills, MC; Weghorst, C, 2021
)
0.62
[information is derived through text-mining from research data collected from National Library of Medicine (NLM), extracted Dec-2023]

Drug Classes (1)

ClassDescription
peptideAmide derived from two or more amino carboxylic acid molecules (the same or different) by formation of a covalent bond from the carbonyl carbon of one to the nitrogen atom of another with formal loss of water. The term is usually applied to structures formed from alpha-amino acids, but it includes those derived from any amino carboxylic acid. X = OH, OR, NH2, NHR, etc.
[compound class information is derived from Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI), Hastings J, Owen G, Dekker A, Ennis M, Kale N, Muthukrishnan V, Turner S, Swainston N, Mendes P, Steinbeck C. (2016). ChEBI in 2016: Improved services and an expanding collection of metabolites. Nucleic Acids Res]

Research

Studies (1,109)

TimeframeStudies, This Drug (%)All Drugs %
pre-19900 (0.00)18.7374
1990's146 (13.17)18.2507
2000's399 (35.98)29.6817
2010's469 (42.29)24.3611
2020's95 (8.57)2.80
[information is prepared from research data collected from National Library of Medicine (NLM), extracted Dec-2023]

Market Indicators

Research Demand Index: 51.79

According to the monthly volume, diversity, and competition of internet searches for this compound, as well the volume and growth of publications, there is estimated to be very strong demand-to-supply ratio for research on this compound.

MetricThis Compound (vs All)
Research Demand Index51.79 (24.57)
Research Supply Index7.02 (2.92)
Research Growth Index4.76 (4.65)
Search Engine Demand Index86.49 (26.88)
Search Engine Supply Index2.00 (0.95)

This Compound (51.79)

All Compounds (24.57)

Study Types

Publication TypeThis drug (%)All Drugs (%)
Trials1 (0.09%)5.53%
Reviews64 (5.72%)6.00%
Case Studies3 (0.27%)4.05%
Observational0 (0.00%)0.25%
Other1,051 (93.92%)84.16%
[information is prepared from research data collected from National Library of Medicine (NLM), extracted Dec-2023]