lactoferrin and Iron-Overload

Iron overload is increasingly implicated as a contributor to the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Indeed, several of the manifestations of COVID-19, such as inflammation, hypercoagulation, hyperferritinemia, and immune dysfunction are also reminiscent of iron overload. Although iron is essential for all living cells, free unbound iron, resulting from iron dysregulation and overload, is very reactive and potentially toxic due to its role in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS react with and damage cellular lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins, with consequent activation of either acute or chronic inflammatory processes implicated in multiple clinical conditions. Moreover, iron-catalyzed lipid damage exerts a direct causative effect on the newly discovered nonapoptotic cell death known as ferroptosis. Unlike apoptosis, ferroptosis is immunogenic and not only leads to amplified cell death but also promotes a series of reactions associated with inflammation. Iron chelators are generally safe and are proven to protect patients in clinical conditions characterized by iron overload. There is also an abundance of evidence that iron chelators possess antiviral activities. Furthermore, the naturally occurring iron chelator lactoferrin (Lf) exerts immunomodulatory as well as anti-inflammatory effects and can bind to several receptors used by coronaviruses thereby blocking their entry into host cells. Iron chelators may consequently be of high therapeutic value during the present COVID-19 pandemic.

Topics: COVID-19; Humans; Iron; Iron Chelating Agents; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; SARS-CoV-2

Iron is an essential trace metal for nearly all infectious microorganisms, and host defense mechanisms target this dependence to deprive microbes of iron. This review highlights mechanisms that are activated during infections to restrict iron on mucosal surfaces, in plasma and extracellular fluid, and within macrophages. Iron overload disorders, such as hereditary hemochromatosis or β-thalassemia, interfere with iron-restrictive host responses, and thereby cause increased susceptibility to infections with microbes that can exploit this vulnerability. Anemia of inflammation (formerly known as anemia of chronic diseases) is an "off-target" effect of host defense wherein inflammatory cytokines shorten erythrocyte lifespan by activating macrophages, prioritize leukocyte production in the marrow, and induce hepcidin to increase plasma transferrin saturation and the concentration of non-transferrin-bound iron.

Topics: Animals; Cation Transport Proteins; Cytokines; Disease Susceptibility; Hepcidins; Humans; Infections; Inflammation Mediators; Iron; Iron Deficiencies; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Leukocytes; Lipocalins; Macrophage Activation; Macrophages; Transferrin

A considerable array of diseases are now recognized to be associated with misplacement of iron. Excessive deposits of the metal in sensitive tissue sites can result in formation of destructive hydroxyl radicals as well as in stimulation of growth of neoplastic and microbial cell invaders. To counteract potential iron damage, hosts employ the iron chelators, transferrin and lactoferrin. These proteins have been recently developed into pharmaceutical products. Additionally, a variety of low molecular mass iron chelators are being used/tested to treat whole body iron loading, and specific diseases for which the metal is a known or suspected risk factor.

Topics: Animals; Bacterial Infections; Deferoxamine; Free Radicals; Humans; Iron; Iron Chelating Agents; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Mycoses; Neoplasms; Transferrin

Topics: Animals; Deferiprone; Deferoxamine; Humans; Iron Chelating Agents; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Pyridones; Transferrin

Central pain (CP) is a common clinical problem in patients with spinal cord injury (SCI). Recent studies found the pathogenesis of CP was related to the remodeling of the brain. We investigate the roles of iron overload and subsequent oxidative stress in the remodeling of the brain after SCI.. We established a rat model of central pain after SCI. Rats were divided randomly into four groups: SCI, sham operation, SCI plus deferoxamine (DFX) intervention, and SCI plus nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor treatment. Pain behavior was observed and thermal pain threshold was measured regularly, and brain levels of iron, transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), ferritin (Fn), and lactoferrin (Lf), were detected in the different groups 12 weeks after establishment of the model.. Rats demonstrated self-biting behavior after SCI. Furthermore, the latent period of thermal pain was reduced and iron levels in the hind limb sensory area, hippocampus, and thalamus increased after SCI. Iron-regulatory protein (IRP) 1 levels increased in the hind limb sensory area, while Fn levels decreased. TfR1 mRNA levels were also increased and oxidative stress was activated. Oxidative stress could be inhibited by ferric iron chelators and NOS inhibitors.. SCI may cause intracranial iron overload through the NOS-iron-responsive element/IRP pathway, resulting in central pain mediated by the oxidative stress response. Iron chelators and oxidative stress inhibitors can effectively relieve SCI-associated central pain.

Topics: Animals; Brain; Female; Ferritins; Iron; Iron Overload; Iron Regulatory Protein 1; Lactoferrin; Malondialdehyde; Oxidative Stress; Pain; Pain Measurement; Pain Threshold; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Receptors, Transferrin; Spinal Cord Injuries; Superoxide Dismutase

Extrinsic black stains on teeth are shown to have a relation with a low incidence of caries and are made of a ferric compound. Whole composition and why those stains are formed are not fully understood. Studies have shown low incidence of caries in individuals eating cheese. Lactoferrin is the major iron-binding protein, constituent of milk, stays almost intact during cheese making and has antibacterial activity against dental cavity-inducing Streptococcus mutans. Lactoferrin has a high affinity for iron and whenever it is present it will bind iron and release it only in values of pH<4. In a small survey that I made in dental practice, patients (patients did not report taking any medication; had no frequent gingival bleeding) that had extrinsic black stains on teeth eat >50 g of cheese per day and a good number of them, in addition to cheese, drink one cup of milk per day. Cheese stays much longer in contact with tooth surface than does' milk and bovine lactoferrin has four glycan chains that may contribute to a better adherence. Extrinsic black stains are made of a ferric compound, and people that eat good amounts of cheese (where lactoferrin plays a central role) show to have black stains. Iron must be in sufficient amounts in saliva so that lactoferrin can bind it and as a result making the black stains appear. In iron deficient anemia and in iron overload the concentration of iron present in saliva is much higher than in individuals with no anemia. In conclusion, extrinsic black stains of teeth may be iron-saturated bovine lactoferrin and a sign of iron deficient anemia or iron overload if no iron supplements are taken or individuals have no frequent gingival bleeding.

Topics: Anemia, Iron-Deficiency; Animals; Biomarkers; Cattle; Color; Coloring Agents; Humans; Iron; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Tooth

The mechanisms behind the association between retinol-binding protein-4 (RBP4) and insulin resistance are not well understood. An interaction between iron and vitamin A status, of which RBP4 is a surrogate, has long been recognized. We hypothesized that iron-associated insulin resistance could be behind the impaired insulin action caused by RBP4.. Serum ferritin and RBP4 concentration and insulin resistance were evaluated in a sample of middle-aged men (n = 132) and in a replication independent study. Serum RBP4 was also studied before and after iron depletion in patients with type 2 diabetes. Finally, the effect of iron on RBP4 release was evaluated in vitro in adipose tissue.. A positive correlation between circulating RBP4 and log serum ferritin (r = 0.35 and r = 0.61, respectively; P < 0.0001) was observed in both independent studies. Serum RBP4 concentration was higher in men than women in parallel to increased ferritin levels. On multiple regression analyses to predict serum RBP4, log serum ferritin contributed significantly to RBP4 variance after controlling for BMI, age, and homeostasis model assessment value. Serum RBP4 concentration decreased after iron depletion in type 2 diabetic patients (percent mean difference -13.7 [95% CI -25.4 to -2.04]; P = 0.024). The iron donor lactoferrin led to increased dose-dependent adipose tissue release of RBP4 (2.4-fold, P = 0.005) and increased RBP4 expression, while apotransferrin and deferoxamine led to decreased RBP4 release.. The relationship between circulating RBP4 and iron stores, both cross-sectional and after iron depletion, and in vitro findings suggest that iron could play a role in the RBP4-insulin resistance relationship.

Topics: Adipose Tissue; Biomarkers; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Ferritins; Humans; Insulin Resistance; Iron; Iron Deficiencies; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Male; Middle Aged; Retinol-Binding Proteins, Plasma; Transferrin; Vitamin A

As a resident of early endosomal phagosomes, Mycobacterium tuberculosis is connected to the iron uptake system of the host macrophage. beta-2-microglobulin (beta2m) knockout (KO) mice are more susceptible to tuberculosis than wild-type mice, which is generally taken as a proof for the role of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I)-restricted CD8 T cells in protection against M. tuberculosis. However, beta2m associates with a number of MHC-I-like proteins, including HFE. This protein regulates transferrin receptor mediated iron uptake and mutations in its gene cause hereditary iron overload (hemochromatosis). Accordingly, beta2m-deficient mice suffer from tissue iron overload. Here, we show that modulating the extracellular iron pool in beta2m-KO mice by lactoferrin treatment significantly reduces the burden of M. tuberculosis to numbers comparable to those observed in MHC class I-KO mice. In parallel, the generation of nitric oxide impaired in beta2m-KO mice was rescued. Conversely, iron overload in the immunocompetent host exacerbated disease. Consistent with this, iron deprivation in infected resting macrophages was detrimental for intracellular mycobacteria. Our data establish: (a) defective iron metabolism explains the increased susceptibility of beta2m-KO mice over MHC-I-KO mice, and (b) iron overload represents an exacerbating cofactor for tuberculosis.

Topics: Animals; beta 2-Microglobulin; Disease Susceptibility; Hemochromatosis Protein; Histocompatibility Antigens Class I; Interferon-gamma; Iron Overload; Lactoferrin; Macrophages; Membrane Proteins; Mice; Mice, Knockout; Mycobacterium tuberculosis; Nitric Oxide; Receptors, Transferrin; Tuberculosis