gambogic-acid and Breast-Neoplasms

A multifunctional nanoplatform with core-shell structure was constructed in one-pot for the synergistic photothermal, photodynamic, and chemotherapy against breast cancer. In the presence of gambogic acid (GA) as the heat-shock protein 90 (HSP90) inhibitor and the gold nanostars (AuNS) as the photothermal reagent, the assembly of Zr

Topics: Breast Neoplasms; Female; Humans; Liposomes; Metal-Organic Frameworks; Nanocomposites; Photochemotherapy; Tumor Microenvironment; Xanthones

Somatic gain-of-function mutations within estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) are highly associated with hormone therapy resistance in breast cancer. However, current understanding of abnormal activity of ERα mutants and their relevant targeted intervention is still very limited. Herein, we developed a new, real-time, and reliably Gaussia luciferase-based protein-fragment complementation assay (GLPCA) for evaluating ERα mutants activities. We found that, compared with ER WT, ERα mutants (Y537S/N and D538G) exhibit high ligand-independent activity, suggesting the gain-of-function phenotype of these ERα mutants. Notably, Y537S, the most common ERα mutant type, has the highest intrinsic activation. We then collected and screened a natural product library for potential ERα antagonists via GLPCA and identified celastrol and gambogic acid as new antagonists of the ERα Y537S mutant. Moreover, interactions between these two compounds and the ERα Y537S mutant were confirmed by molecular docking and cellular thermal shift assay. Importantly, we further demonstrated that celastrol and gambogic acid exhibit synergistic antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects when combined with an approved CDK4/6 inhibitor abemaciclib in breast cancer cells expressing ERα Y537S. In summary, GLPCA provides a powerful platform for exploring innovative functional biology and drug discovery of antagonists targeting ERα mutants.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Breast Neoplasms; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Estrogen Receptor alpha; Female; HEK293 Cells; Humans; MCF-7 Cells; Mice, Inbred BALB C; Mice, Nude; Mutation; Pentacyclic Triterpenes; Protein Structure, Secondary; Xanthones

Liposomal drug delivery has become an established technology platform to deliver dual drugs to produce synergistic effects and reduce the adverse effects of traditional chemotherapy. Gambogic acid (GA) and retinoic acid (RA) are both effective anticancer components, but their low water-solubility (gambogic acid < 0.0050 mg/mL, retinoic acid 0.0048 < mg/mL) makes it difficult to load both drugs into the liposomes actively using the conventional method. We have successfully used solvent-assisted active loading technology (SALT) to load the insoluble drugs into the internal water phase via water-miscible organic solvent. Gambogic acid and retinoic acid co-encapsulated liposomes (weight ratio of GA to RA = 1:2, GRL) exhibited the strongest synergistic effect; combination index (CI) was 0.614 in 4T1 cells. Our studies demonstrated that GRL had uniform droplet size of about 130 nm, high stability, and controlled release behavior. GRL outperformed gambogic acid and retinoic acid solution (GRS) in pharmacokinetic profiles for a longer half-life and increased AUC. Comparing to GRS, GL, and RL, GRL showed increased cytotoxicity and apoptosis in 4T1 cells and showed the strongest anti-tumor ability in the in vivo anti-tumor efficacy. Overall, the SALT was a promising method to active loading poorly soluble drugs into liposomes, and the results showed GRL possessed a great potential for use in synergistic anticancer therapy.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents; Breast Neoplasms; Capsules; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Proliferation; Cell Survival; Drug Combinations; Drug Compounding; Drug Liberation; Female; Liposomes; Mice; Particle Size; Solvents; Tretinoin; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

Poor targeting and penetration of chemotherapy drugs in solid tumors, and the development of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents are currently hindering the therapy of breast cancer; meanwhile, breast cancer metastasis is one of the leading causes of death in breast cancer patients. With the development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials have been widely used in tumor therapy.. A multi-functional nano-platform containing gambogic acid (GA) and paclitaxel (PTX) was characterized by a small size, high encapsulation efficiency, slow release, long systemic circulation time in vivo, showed good targeting and penetrability to tumor tissues and tumor cells, and exhibited higher anti-tumor effect and lower systemic toxicity in BALB/c mice bearing 4T1 tumor. GA not only overcame the multidrug resistance of PTX by inhibiting P-glycoprotein (P-gp) activity in MCF-7/ADR cells, but also inhibited MDA-MB-231 cells migration and invasion, playing a crucial role in preventing and treating the lung metastasis of breast cancer caused by PTX; meanwhile, the synergistic anti-tumor effect of GA and PTX has also been verified in vitro and in vivo experiments.. Our data described the better recognition and penetration of tumor cells of R9dGR-modified versatile nanosystems containing GA and PTX, which exerted one stone three birds clinical therapeutic efficacy of multifunctionality.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents; ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Drug Delivery Systems; Drug Resistance, Multiple; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Drug Therapy, Combination; Female; Humans; MCF-7 Cells; Mice; Mice, Inbred BALB C; Mice, Nude; Nanoparticles; Neoplasm Metastasis; Paclitaxel; Particle Size; Pharmaceutical Preparations; Wound Healing; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a highly metastatic, lethal form of breast cancer that lacks targeted therapeutic strategies. Inspired by the promising cytotoxicity of gambogic acid and related caged xanthones in spheroids

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Proliferation; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor; Female; Humans; Inflammatory Breast Neoplasms; Molecular Structure; Structure-Activity Relationship; Xanthones

Due to the ability of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce cancer cell apoptosis selectively, TRAIL has attracted significant interest in the treatment of cancer. However, although TRAIL triggers apoptosis in a broad range of cancer cells, most primary cancers are often intrinsically TRAIL-resistant, or can acquire resistance after TRAIL treatment, evocating new strategies to overcome TRAIL resistance. Gambogic acid (GA), an active constituent of Garcinia Hanburyi (Teng Huang in Chinese), has been applied for thousands of years for medicinal uses, however, the potential effect of GA in combating cancer resistance remains poorly investigated. In this study, we found that GA could increase the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to TRAIL and enhance TRAIL-induced apoptosis. GA cooperated with TRAIL to decrease the levels of anti-apoptotic proteins and activate Bid (BH3 interacting-domain death agonist) to promote the crosstalk of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic signaling, rather than increasing the expression of TRAIL receptors DR4 and DR5. These findings may open a new window in the treatment of breast cancer using TRAIL in combination with GA.

Topics: Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Caspases; Cell Line, Tumor; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Enzyme Activation; Female; Humans; Mitochondria; Signal Transduction; TNF-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand; Xanthones

Tumor-targeted delivery is considered a crucial component of current anticancer drug development and is the best approach to increase the efficacy and reduce the toxicity. Nanomedicine, particularly ligand-based nanoparticles have shown a great potential for active targeting of tumor. Cell penetrating peptide is one of the promising ligands in a targeted cancer therapy. In this study, the gambogic acid-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (GA-NLC) was modified with two kinds of cell penetrating peptides (cRGD and RGERPPR). The GA-NLC was prepared by emulsification and solvent evaporation method and coupled with cRGD, RGERPPR, and combination cRGD and RGERPPR to form GA-NLC-cRGD, GA-NLC-RGE, and GA-NLC-cRGD/RGE, respectively. The formulations were characterized by their particle size and morphology, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, and differential scanning calorimetry. In vitro cytotoxicity and cellular uptake study of the formulations were performed against breast cancer cell (MDA-MB-231). Furthermore, in vivo biodistribution and antitumor activity of the formulations were determined by in vivo imaging and in tumor-bearing nude mice, respectively. The result of in vitro cytotoxicity study showed that GA-NLC-RGE exhibited a significantly higher cytotoxicity on MDA-MB-231 as compared with GA-NLC and GA-Sol. Similarly, RGE-Cou-6-NLC showed remarkably higher uptake by the cells than other NLCs over the incubation period. The in vivo imaging study has demonstrated that among the formulations, the RGE-decorated DiR-NLC were more accumulated in the tumor site. The in vivo antitumor activity revealed that RGE-GA-NLC inhibits the tumor growth more efficiently than other formulations. In conclusion, RGERPPR has a potential as an effective carrier in targeting drug delivery of anticancer agents.

Topics: Absorption, Physiological; Animals; Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; Cell-Penetrating Peptides; Drug Carriers; Drug Compounding; Female; Humans; Mice, Inbred BALB C; Mice, Nude; Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; Nanostructures; Particle Size; Random Allocation; Surface Properties; Tissue Distribution; Tumor Burden; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

Gambogic acid (GA) possesses good anti-tumor efficacy in preclinical studies, however, its poor hydrophilicity, short blood circulation time and side effect limited its clinical application. In this work, monomethyl poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone) (MPEG-PCL) copolymer was synthesized and used to encapsulate GA by a facile one-step solid dispersion and form nano-sized micelles (GA micelles). The GA micelles exhibited small average particle size (29±2 nm), high encapsulation efficiency (92.1±0.3%), and long drug release time-in vitro. Compared to free GA, GA micelles showed superior aqueous dispersity, better tumor cellular uptake, enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction effect against MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrated that GA micelles have better antitumor effect in the MCF-7 subcutaneous xenograft tumor model. Histopathological analysis of Ki-67 and TUNEL staining further proved that GA micelles could significantly suppress proliferation as well as increase the apoptosis of tumor cells. These results suggested that GA micelles could potentially improve therapeutic outcomes for breast cancer therapy.

Topics: Animals; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Humans; MCF-7 Cells; Mice; Micelles; Polyesters; Polyethylene Glycols; Xanthones

It has been reported that gambogic acid (GA), the main active component of gamboge, could directly inhibit and reduce the expression level of P-gp by promoting protein degradation through post-translational proteasome pathway. In this study, the optimal molar ratio of GA/docetaxel (DTX) that could recover the sensitivity of MCF-7/ADR cells to DTX was firstly investigated. Then GA and DTX were loaded simultaneously in PLGA nanoparticles in terms of the optimal ratio. In vitro cell apoptosis and western-blot assays showed that co-delivery of anticancer drugs resulted in enhanced cell apoptosis through the downregulation of the expression level of P-gp. Interestingly, in vivo pharmacokinetic study demonstrated that GA and DTX are released synchronously in blood from the NPs. Finally, the most effective tumor growth inhibition in the MCF-7/ADR human breast tumor xenograft was observed in the co-delivery nanoparticle formulation group in comparison with saline control, free DTX solution and free DTX/GA solution. Taken together, our study demonstrated that DTX/GA PLGA NPs based combination therapy holds significant potential towards the treatment of multidrug-resistant breast cancer.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Docetaxel; Drug Resistance, Multiple; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Female; Humans; Male; MCF-7 Cells; Nanoparticles; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Taxoids; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

Gambogic acid (GA) is a naturally derived potent anticancer agent with extremely poor aqueous solubility. In the present study, positively charged PEGylated liposomal formulation of GA (GAL) was developed for parenteral delivery for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). The GAL was formulated with a particle size of 107.3 ± 10.6 nm with +32 mV zeta potential. GAL showed very minimal release of GA over 24 h period confirming the non-leakiness and stability of liposomes. In vitro cytotoxicity assays showed similar cell killing with GA and GAL against MDA-MB-231 cells but significantly higher inhibition of HUVEC growth was observed with GAL. Furthermore, GAL significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited the MDA-MB-231 orthotopic xenograft tumor growth with >50% reduction of tumor volume and reduction in tumor weight by 1.7-fold and 2.2-fold when compared to GA and controls, respectively. Results of western blot analysis indicated that GAL significantly suppressed the expression of apoptotic markers, bcl2, cyclinD1, survivin and microvessel density marker-CD31 and increased the expression of p53 and Bax compared to GA and control. Collectively, these data provide further support for the potential applications of cationic GAL in its intravenous delivery and its significant role in inhibiting angiogenesis against TNBC.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Breast Neoplasms; Cations; Cell Line, Tumor; Drug Delivery Systems; Female; Humans; Liposomes; Particle Size; Polyethylene Glycols; Triple Negative Breast Neoplasms; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

Gambogic acid (GA) is an anticancer agent in phase ‖b clinical trial in China but its mechanism of action has not been fully clarified. The present study was designed to search the possible target-related proteins of GA in cancer cells using proteomic method and establish possible network using bioinformatic analysis. Cytotoxicity and anti-migration effects of GA in MDA-MB-231 cells were checked using MTT assay, flow cytometry, wound migration assay, and chamber migration assay. Possible target-related proteins of GA at early (3 h) and late stage (24 h) of treatment were searched using a proteomic technology, two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). The possible network of GA was established using bioinformatic analysis. The intracellular expression levels of vimentin, keratin 18, and calumenin were determined using Western blotting. GA inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, GA exhibited anti-migration effects at non-toxic doses. In 2-DE analysis, totally 23 possible GA targeted proteins were found, including those with functions in cytoskeleton and transport, regulation of redox state, metabolism, ubiquitin-proteasome system, transcription and translation, protein transport and modification, and cytokine. Network analysis of these proteins suggested that cytoskeleton-related proteins might play important roles in the effects of GA. Results of Western blotting confirmed the cleavage of vimentin, increase in keratin 18, and decrease in calumenin levels in GA-treated cells. In summary, GA is a multi-target compound and its anti-cancer effects may be based on several target-related proteins such as cytoskeleton-related proteins.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Calcium-Binding Proteins; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Migration Assays; Cell Migration Inhibition; Cell Proliferation; Computational Biology; Cytoskeleton; Electrophoresis, Gel, Two-Dimensional; Flow Cytometry; Gene Expression; Humans; Keratin-18; Oxidation-Reduction; Protein Biosynthesis; Protein Transport; Proteomics; Transcription, Genetic; Ubiquitin-Specific Proteases; Vimentin; Xanthones

The development of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents remains a major challenge to breast cancer chemotherapy. Overexpression of drug efflux transporters like P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and resistance to apoptosis are the two key factors that confer cancer drug resistance. Gambogic acid (GA), a major component of Gamboge resin, has potent anticancer effects and can inhibit the growth of several types of human cancers. However, the potential and underlying mechanisms of GA in reversing cancer resistance remain poorly understood. In the present study, we found that GA can markedly sensitize doxorubicin (DOX)-resistant breast cancer cells to DOX-mediated cell death. GA increased the intracellular accumulation of DOX by inhibiting both P-gp expression and activity. Meanwhile, the combination effect was associated with the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the suppression of anti-apoptotic protein survivin. Scavenging intracellular ROS or overexpression of survivin blocked the sensitizing effects of GA in DOX-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, ROS-mediated activation of p38 MAPK was revealed in GA-mediated suppression of survivin expression. This study gives rise to the possibility of applying GA as an anticancer agent for the purpose of combating DOX-resistant breast cancer.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins; ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Doxorubicin; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Female; Gene Expression; Humans; Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins; MCF-7 Cells; p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases; Reactive Oxygen Species; Survivin; Xanthones

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the major obstacles to the successful treatment of breast cancer. The overexpression of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and of anti-apoptotic proteins like survivin are the major causes of MDR. Here, we developed a gambogic acid (GA)-loaded mixed micelle system made of poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(L-histidine)-poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG-pHis-PLGA) and D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 (TPGS) that is potentially useful for overcoming MDR by integrating the beneficial effects of pH-sensitive behavior, P-gp inhibition, and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins. The therapeutic potential and mechanism of action of GA-loaded pH-sensitive mixed micelles were examined in drug-sensitive human breast MCF-7 and drug-resistant MCF-7/ADR cells. The resulting GA-loaded mixed micelles with an average size of 190.1 nm were stable at pH 7.4, but dissociated rapidly in a weakly acidic environment (pH 5.5). The GA-loaded mixed micelles increased the cell cytotoxicity against both MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cells, which was associated with enhanced apoptosis. In addition, the GA-loaded mixed micelles down-regulated the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins survivin and Bcl-2, and inhibited the expression and activity of P-gp in MCF-7/ADR cells. Our results indicate that this system could overcome drug resistant in breast cancer by targeting distinct mechanisms, which may facilitate the translation of the GA-mediated effects into clinical benefits.

Topics: Adenosine Triphosphate; Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1; Breast Neoplasms; Caspases; Cell Cycle; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; Drug Resistance, Multiple; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Female; Humans; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins; Micelles; Molecular Targeted Therapy; Polyethylene Glycols; Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2; Survivin; Xanthones

Graphene and single-walled carbon nanotubes were used to deliver the natural low-toxicity drug gambogic acid (GA) to breast and pancreatic cancer cells in vitro, and the effectiveness of this complex in suppressing cellular integrity was assessed. Cytotoxicity was assessed by measuring lactate dehydrogenase release, mitochondria dehydrogenase activity, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, DNA fragmentation, intracellular lipid content, and membrane permeability/caspase activity. The nanomaterials showed no toxicity at the concentrations used, and the antiproliferative effects of GA were significantly enhanced by nanodelivery. The results suggest that these complexes inhibit human breast and pancreatic cancer cells grown in vitro. This analysis represents a first step toward assessing their effectiveness in more complex, targeted, nanodelivery systems.

Topics: Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Drug Carriers; Graphite; Humans; L-Lactate Dehydrogenase; Macrophages; Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; Mitochondria; Nanotubes, Carbon; Pancreatic Neoplasms; Xanthones

Delivery of a high concentration of anticancer drugs specifically to cancer cells remains the biggest challenge for the treatment of multidrug-resistant cancer. Poloxamers and D-α-Tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) are known inhibitors of P-glycoprotein (P-gp). Mixed micelles prepared from Poloxamer 407 and TPGS may increase the therapeutic efficacy of the drug by delivering high concentrations inside the cells and inhibiting P-gp. Gambogic acid (GA) is a naturally derived novel anticancer agent, but poor solubility and toxic side effects limit its use. In this study, we have developed Poloxamer 407 and TPGS mixed micelle-encapsulating GA for the treatment of breast and multidrug-resistant cancer.. GA-loaded Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles were prepared using a thin film hydration method, and their physicochemical properties were characterized. Cellular accumulation and cytotoxicity of the GA-loaded Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles were studied in breast cancer cells, MCF-7 cells, and multidrug-resistant NCI/ADR-RES cells.. The diameter of GA-loaded Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles was about 17.4 ± 0.5 nm and the zeta potential -13.57 mV. The entrapment efficiency of GA was 93.1% ± 0.5% and drug loading was about 9.38% ± 0.29%. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder diffraction studies confirmed that GA is encapsulated by the polymers. The in vitro release studies showed that mixed micelles sustained the release of GA for more than 4 days. Results from cellular uptake studies indicated that GA-loaded Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles had increased cellular uptake of GA in NCI/ADR-RES cells. Cytotoxicity of GA-loaded Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles was found to be 2.9 times higher in multidrug-resistant NCI/ADR-RES cells, and 1.6 times higher in MCF-7 cells, as compared with unencapsulated GA.. This study suggests that Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles can be used as a delivery system for GA to treat breast and multidrug-resistant cancer.

Topics: Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; Drug Resistance, Multiple; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Female; Humans; Micelles; Nanocapsules; Particle Size; Poloxamer; Polyethylene Glycols; Vitamin E; Xanthones

Gambogic acid (GA) is considered a potent anti-tumor agent for its multiple effects on cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Low concentrations of GA (0.3-1.2 µmol/L) can suppress invasion of human breast carcinoma cells without affecting cell viability. To get a whole profile of the inhibition on breast cancers, higher concentrations of GA and spontaneous metastatic animal models were employed. Treatment with GA (3 and 6 µmol/L) induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, GA induced PARP cleavage, activation of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9, as well as an increased ratio of Bax/Bcl-2. Moreover, the translocation of apoptotic inducing factor (AIF) and the release of cytochrome c (Cyt c) from mitochondria were observed, indicating that GA induced apoptosis through accumulation of ROS and mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. GA also inhibited cell survival via blocking Akt/mTOR signaling. In vivo, GA significantly inhibited the xenograft tumor growth and lung metastases in athymic BALB/c nude mice bearing MDA-MB-231 cells. Collectively, these data provide further support for the multiple effects of GA on human breast cancer cells, as well as for its potential application to inhibit tumor growth and prevent metastasis in human cancers.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Apoptosis Inducing Factor; bcl-2-Associated X Protein; Breast Neoplasms; Caspase 3; Caspase 8; Caspase 9; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; Cytochromes c; Female; Humans; Mice; Mice, Nude; Neoplasm Metastasis; Reactive Oxygen Species; Signal Transduction; Xanthones; Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays

The transcription factor, STAT3, is associated with proliferation, survival, and metastasis of cancer cells. We investigated whether gambogic acid (GA), a xanthone derived from the resin of traditional Chinese medicine, Garcinia hanburyi (mangosteen), can regulate the STAT3 pathway, leading to suppression of growth and sensitization of cancer cells. We found that GA induced apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cells that correlated with the inhibition of both constitutive and inducible STAT3 activation. STAT3 phosphorylation at both tyrosine residue 705 and serine residue 727 was inhibited by GA. STAT3 suppression was mediated through the inhibition of activation of the protein tyrosine kinases Janus-activated kinase 1 (JAK1) and JAK2. Treatment with the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) inhibitor pervanadate reversed the GA-induced downregulation of STAT3, suggesting the involvement of a PTP. We also found that GA induced the expression of the PTP SHP-1. Deletion of the SHP-1 gene by siRNA suppressed the ability of GA to inhibit STAT3 activation and to induce apoptosis, suggesting the critical role of SHP-1 in its action. Moreover, GA downregulated the expression of STAT3-regulated antiapoptotic (Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Mcl-1), proliferative (cyclin D1), and angiogenic (VEGF) proteins, and this correlated with suppression of proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Overall, these results suggest that GA blocks STAT3 activation, leading to suppression of tumor cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis.

Topics: Apoptosis; Blotting, Western; Breast Neoplasms; Carcinoma, Squamous Cell; Cell Proliferation; DNA, Neoplasm; Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay; Female; Head and Neck Neoplasms; Humans; Immunoenzyme Techniques; Janus Kinase 1; Janus Kinase 2; Male; Multiple Myeloma; Phosphorylation; Prostatic Neoplasms; Protein Transport; Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 6; RNA, Small Interfering; STAT3 Transcription Factor; Tumor Cells, Cultured; Xanthones

Transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) is a ubiquitous type II membrane receptor with 61 amino acids in the N-terminal cytoplasmic region. TfR1 is highly expressed in cancer cells, particularly under iron deficient conditions. Overexpression of TfR1 is thought to meet the increased requirement of iron uptake necessary for cell growth. In the present study, we used transferrin (Tf), a known ligand of TfR1, and gambogic acid (GA), an apoptosis-inducing agent and newly identified TfR1 ligand to investigate the signaling role of TfR1 in breast cancer cells. We found that GA but not Tf induced apoptosis in a TfR1-dependent manner in breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 cells lack caspase-3 and were not responsive to GA treatment. GA activated the three major signaling pathways of the MAPK family, as well as caspase-3, -8, and Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase apoptotic pathway. Interestingly, only Src inhibitor PP2 greatly sensitized the cells to GA-mediated apoptosis. Further investigations by confocal fluorescence microscopy and immunoprecipitation revealed that Src and TfR1 are constitutively bound. Using TfR1-deficient CHO TRVB cells, point mutation studies showed that Tyr(20) within the (20)YTRF(23) motif of the cytoplasmic region of TfR1 is the phosphorylation site by Src. TfR1 Tyr(20) phosphomutants were more sensitive to GA-mediated apoptosis. Our results indicate that, albeit its iron uptake function, TfR1 is a signaling molecule and tyrosine phosphorylation at position 20 by Src enhances anti-apoptosis and potentiates breast cancer cell survival.

Topics: Animals; Antigens, CD; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Caspase 3; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; CHO Cells; Cricetinae; Cricetulus; Female; Humans; MAP Kinase Signaling System; Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases; Neoplasm Proteins; Phosphorylation; Pyrimidines; Receptors, Transferrin; src-Family Kinases; Xanthones

In this study, we investigated the correlation between p53 and bcl-2 in gambogic acid (GA)-induced apoptosis.. MTT assay was employed to evaluate MCF-7 cell viability after GA treatment. Cell morphological changes were observed follow-up under the inverted microscope after GA withdrawal. To observe the cell apoptosis, DAPI staining was used. Meanwhile, p53 small interfering RNA (si-RNA) was adopted to knock p53 down. All expressions of p53 and bcl-2 were evaluated by Western blot analysis.. MTT assay showed that GA inhibited MCF-7 cell growth effectively in a time-dependent manner. With 0.5 h GA treatment, p53 was significantly increased, whereas bcl-2 was reduced potently with 6 h GA treatment. After GA withdrawal, p53 expressions were maintained in high levels. Furthermore, bcl-2 decreasing was attenuated after co-treatment with PFT alpha, a p53 transcription blocker. Same result was observed after p53 knock-down by p53 si-RNA.. Gambogic acid induced human breast cancer cells MCF-7 apoptosis by reducing bcl-2 expression via p53.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Proliferation; Down-Regulation; Drug Evaluation, Preclinical; Female; Humans; Models, Biological; Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2; RNA, Small Interfering; Tumor Suppressor Protein p53; Xanthones

Gambogic acid (GA), an ingredient isolated from Garcinia hanburyi, has potent anticancer activity both in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we examined the effects of GA on intracellular microtubules and reconstituted microtubules in vitro. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that 2.5 muM GA caused microtubule cytoskeleton disruption and microtubule depolymerization in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells, thereby reducing the amount of polymer form of tubulin and increasing the amount of monomer form of tubulin. We further confirmed that GA could depolymerize microtubule associated protein (MAP)-free microtubules and MAP-rich microtubules in vitro. Thus we suggested that GA-induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest may be attributed to its depolymerization of microtubules. We also revealed that phosphorylation levels of p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase-1 (JNK-1) were increased markedly by GA, resulting in apoptosis of MCF-7 cells. Taken together, our results suggested that GA depolymerized microtubules and elevated the phosphorylation levels of JNK1 and p38, which caused G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Apoptosis; Blotting, Western; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Cycle; Cell Line, Tumor; Female; Flow Cytometry; Humans; Microtubules; Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 8; p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases; Phosphorylation; Tubulin; Xanthones

Cancer cell invasion is one of the crucial events in local spreading, growth, and metastasis of tumors. The present study investigated the antiinvasive and antimetastatic action of gambogic acid (GA) in MDA-MB-435 human breast carcinoma cells. GA caused a concentration-dependent suppression of cell invasion through Matrigel and significantly inhibited lung metastases of the cells transplanted in vivo. The potent effects of GA have been attributed to its ability to reduce the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9 in vitro and in vivo both at the protein and mRNA levels, which were associated with protein kinase C (PKC) signaling pathway as supported by the diminished antiinvasive effect of GA in the presence of specific activator of the pathway. Collectively, our data demonstrated that GA exhibited antiinvasion properties on highly invasive cancer cells via PKC mediated MMP-2/9 expression inhibition. This indicated that GA can be served as a potential novel therapeutic candidate for the treatment of cancer metastasis.

Topics: Animals; Antineoplastic Agents; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Movement; Female; Gene Expression Regulation; Humans; Lung Neoplasms; Matrix Metalloproteinase 2; Matrix Metalloproteinase 9; Mice; Mice, Nude; Xanthones

Gambogic acid (GA) has been known to have antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we investigated the anti-invasive effects of GA in MDA-MB-231 human breast carcinoma cells. The results indicated that GA significantly inhibited the adhesion, migration, and invasion of the cells in vitro tested by the heterotypic adhesion assay, wound migration assay, and chamber invasion assay. Results of Western blotting and immunocytochemistry analysis showed that GA could suppress the expressions of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) and 9 (MMP-9) in MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, gelatin zymography revealed that GA decreased the activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Additionally, GA exerted an inhibitory effect on the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK, while it had no effect on p38. Taken together, our results demonstrated the anti-invasive property of GA for the first time and indicated it could serve as a promising drug for the treatment of cancer metastasis.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Movement; Cell Survival; Enzyme Induction; Female; Humans; MAP Kinase Signaling System; Matrix Metalloproteinase 2; Matrix Metalloproteinase 9; Molecular Structure; Neoplasm Invasiveness; Xanthones

Gambogic acid (2), a natural product isolated from the resin of Garcinia hurburyi tree, was discovered to be a potent apoptosis inducer using our cell- and caspase-based high-throughput screening assays. Gambogic acid was found to have an EC(50) of 0.78 microM in the caspase activation assay in T47D breast cancer cells. The apoptosis-inducing activity of gambogic acid was further characterized by a nuclear fragmentation assay and flow cytometry analysis in human breast tumor cells T47D. Gambogic acid was found to induce apoptosis independent of cell cycle, which is different from paclitaxel that arrests cells in the G2/M phase. To understand the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of gambogic acid, derivatives of 2 with modifications to different function groups were prepared. SAR studies of gambogic acid, as measured by the caspase activation assay, showed that the 9,10 carbon-carbon double bond of the alpha,beta-unsaturated ketone is important for biological activity, while the 6-hydroxy and 30-carboxy group can tolerate a variety of modifications. The importance of the 9,10 carbon-carbon double bond was confirmed by the traditional growth inhibition assay. The high potency of 2 as an inducer of apoptosis, its novel mechanism of action, easy isolation and abundant supply, as well as the fact that it is amenable to chemical modification, makes gambogic acid an attractive molecule for the development of anticancer agents.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Apoptosis; Breast Neoplasms; Caspases; Cell Cycle; Cell Line, Tumor; Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor; Enzyme Activation; Female; Humans; Structure-Activity Relationship; Xanthones