cocaine and Diathesis

cocaine has been researched along with Diathesis in 40 studies

Research

Studies (40)

TimeframeStudies, this research(%)All Research%
pre-19904 (10.00)18.7374
1990's8 (20.00)18.2507
2000's16 (40.00)29.6817
2010's11 (27.50)24.3611
2020's1 (2.50)2.80

Authors

AuthorsStudies
Chang, S; Hu, Z; Li, W; Li, Z; Wang, B; Zhang, H; Zheng, J1
Chen, CY; Ho, CK; Huang, LH; Huang, YL; Pan, CH; Wu, MT; Wu, TN1
Lane, AE; Lane, DA; Qian, L; Trubetckaia, O; Zhou, P1
Avalos, MP; Bollati, FA; Cancela, LM; De Giovanni, LN; Euliarte, PV; Guzman, AS; Mongi-Bragato, B; Rigoni, D; Sanchez, MA; Virgolini, MB1
Accoto, A; Andolina, D; Coassin, A; D'Amato, FR; Di Segni, M; Lizzi, AR; Luchetti, A; Luzi, C; Pascucci, T; Ventura, R1
Black, EM; Brodnik, ZD; Clark, MJ; España, RA; Kornsey, KN; Snyder, NW1
Kirby, ML; Michaelevski, I; Pinhasov, A; Yadid, G; Yanovich, C1
Becker, JB; Bhatnagar, S; Hu, M; Lee, TM; Thomas, MB1
Baker, DA; Kau, KS; Lobner, D; Madayag, A; Mantsch, JR; Wisniewski, S1
Estour, F; Fortin, D; Monteil, C; Mulder, P; Thuillez, C; Vendeville-Dehaudt, C; Ventura-Clapier, R; Vergeade, A1
Ettenberg, A; Kerstetter, KA; Kippin, TE; Su, ZI1
Acewicz, A; Bienkowski, P; Dyr, W; Jastrzebska, A; Korkosz, I; Kostowski, W; Mierzejewski, P; Nauman, P; Samochowiec, J; Wyszogrodzka, E1
Leri, F; Levy, A; Limebeer, CL; Parker, LA; Salamon, A; Tucci, M1
Aalkjaer, C; Boedtkjer, DB; Bouzinova, EV; Broegger, T; Matchkov, VV; Møller-Nielsen, N; Wiborg, O1
Clarke, PB; Grant, RJ1
Friedman, H; Klein, TW; Newton, C1
Bowen, WD; Martin-Fardon, R; Maurice, T; Romieu, P1
Flagel, SB; Robinson, TE; Vázquez, DM1
Bloodgood, TA; Knuepfer, MM; Lechner, AJ; Matuschak, GM1
Bae, S; Ducsay, CA; Gilbert, RD; Zhang, L1
Knuepfer, MM; Lomax, LL; Rowe, KD; Schwartz, JA1
Bae, S; Zhang, L1
Alexander, N; Fronek, K1
Keller, RW; Snyder-Keller, AM1
Brum, JM; DeBoer, GE; Mitsumoto, H; Sato, N1
Novak, VJ1
Flowers, C; King, RJ1
Comings, DE; Gade, R; Johnson, P; MacMurray, J; Muhleman, D; Saucier, G; Verde, R1
Baraban, SC; McCarthy, EB; Schwartzkroin, PA1
Keller, RW; Snyder-Keller, A1
Kehoe, P; Kosten, TA; Miserendino, MJ1
Marinelli, M; White, FJ1
Blendy, JA; Walters, CL1
Kuhar, MJ1
García-Algar, O; López Segura, N; Mur Sierra, A1
Li, Y; Robinson, TE; Samaha, AN1
Post, RM1
Goldberg, SR; Marley, RJ; Witkin, JM1
Acampora, A; Borgia, G; Cangiano, F; Chirianni, A; Guadagnino, V; Manzillo, E; Piazza, M; Picciotto, L; Tosone, G1
Kaufman, E1

Reviews

3 review(s) available for cocaine and Diathesis

ArticleYear
Microbial infections, immunomodulation, and drugs of abuse.
    Clinical microbiology reviews, 2003, Volume: 16, Issue:2

    Topics: Cannabis; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Ethanol; Humans; Immune Tolerance; Immunity; Infections; Narcotics; Nicotine; Substance-Related Disorders

2003
Role of angiotensin II and corticotropin-releasing hormone in hemodynamic responses to cocaine and stress.
    Regulatory peptides, 2005, Apr-15, Volume: 127, Issue:1-3

    Topics: Angiotensin II; Animals; Autonomic Nervous System; Behavior; Cardiovascular Diseases; Cocaine; Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone; Disease Susceptibility; Hemodynamics; Humans; Stress, Physiological; Sympathomimetics; Vasoconstrictor Agents

2005
[Cocaine toxicity in the newborn. Detection and prevalence].
    Anales espanoles de pediatria, 2002, Volume: 56, Issue:3

    Topics: Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Female; Humans; Infant, Newborn; Infant, Newborn, Diseases; Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Prevalence

2002

Other Studies

37 other study(ies) available for cocaine and Diathesis

ArticleYear
[Relationship between HSP70 gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to lung function injury of cock-oven workers].
    Zhonghua lao dong wei sheng zhi ye bing za zhi = Zhonghua laodong weisheng zhiyebing zazhi = Chinese journal of industrial hygiene and occupational diseases, 2015, Volume: 33, Issue:3

    Topics: Coke; Disease Susceptibility; Genotype; Haplotypes; HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins; Humans; Lung; Occupational Exposure; Polymorphism, Genetic; Surveys and Questionnaires

2015
Immunological findings in a group of coke-oven workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
    Journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 2003, Volume: 45, Issue:10

    Topics: Adult; Air Pollutants, Occupational; Antibody Formation; Cohort Studies; Coke; Disease Susceptibility; Environmental Monitoring; Humans; Immune System; Immunoglobulins; Interviews as Topic; Linear Models; Male; Metallurgy; Middle Aged; Occupational Exposure; Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons; Risk Factors; Taiwan; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; Vitamins

2003
Alpha-synuclein is strategically positioned for afferent modulation of midbrain dopamine neurons and is essential for cocaine preference.
    Communications biology, 2019, Volume: 2

    Topics: alpha-Synuclein; Animals; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dopaminergic Neurons; Extracellular Space; Immunohistochemistry; Male; Mesencephalon; Mice; Mice, Knockout; Models, Biological; Motivation; Motor Activity; Reward; Signal Transduction

2019
CB1R activation in nucleus accumbens core promotes stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking by elevating extracellular glutamate in a drug-paired context.
    Scientific reports, 2021, 06-21, Volume: 11, Issue:1

    Topics: Animals; Behavior, Animal; Biomarkers; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Classical; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Extinction, Psychological; Extracellular Space; Glutamic Acid; Nucleus Accumbens; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1; Stress, Physiological

2021
Sensitivity to cocaine in adult mice is due to interplay between genetic makeup, early environment and later experience.
    Neuropharmacology, 2017, Volume: 125

    Topics: Animals; Brain; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Psychological; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Female; Gene-Environment Interaction; Genetic Predisposition to Disease; Mice, Inbred C57BL; Mice, Inbred DBA; Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos; Random Allocation; Reward; Spatial Behavior; Species Specificity

2017
Susceptibility to traumatic stress sensitizes the dopaminergic response to cocaine and increases motivation for cocaine.
    Neuropharmacology, 2017, Volume: 125

    Topics: Animals; Anxiety; Avoidance Learning; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Drug-Seeking Behavior; Male; Motivation; Motor Activity; Nucleus Accumbens; Predatory Behavior; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Resilience, Psychological; Reward; Self Administration; Stress, Psychological

2017
Social rank-associated stress vulnerability predisposes individuals to cocaine attraction.
    Scientific reports, 2018, 01-29, Volume: 8, Issue:1

    Topics: Animals; Behavior, Addictive; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Conditioning, Classical; Disease Susceptibility; Extinction, Psychological; Hippocampus; Male; Mice; Stress, Psychological

2018
Sex-specific susceptibility to cocaine in rats with a history of prenatal stress.
    Physiology & behavior, 2009, May-25, Volume: 97, Issue:2

    Topics: Analysis of Variance; Anesthetics, Local; Animals; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Operant; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Female; Locomotion; Male; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Self Administration; Sex Characteristics

2009
Drug-induced plasticity contributing to heightened relapse susceptibility: neurochemical changes and augmented reinstatement in high-intake rats.
    The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2010, Jan-06, Volume: 30, Issue:1

    Topics: Animals; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Male; Neuronal Plasticity; Nucleus Accumbens; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Secondary Prevention; Self Administration

2010
Mitochondrial impairment contributes to cocaine-induced cardiac dysfunction: Prevention by the targeted antioxidant MitoQ.
    Free radical biology & medicine, 2010, Sep-01, Volume: 49, Issue:5

    Topics: Animals; Antioxidants; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Drug Evaluation, Preclinical; Heart Diseases; Male; Mitochondria, Heart; Mitochondrial Diseases; Molecular Targeted Therapy; Organophosphorus Compounds; Oxygen Consumption; Rats; Rats, Wistar; Reactive Oxygen Species; Ubiquinone

2010
Sex and estrous cycle differences in cocaine-induced approach-avoidance conflict.
    Addiction biology, 2013, Volume: 18, Issue:2

    Topics: Analysis of Variance; Animals; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conflict, Psychological; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Drug-Seeking Behavior; Estrous Cycle; Female; Humans; Male; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Reaction Time; Reinforcement, Psychology; Self Administration; Sex Characteristics

2013
Cocaine self-administration in Warsaw alcohol high-preferring (WHP) and Warsaw alcohol low-preferring (WLP) rats.
    European journal of pharmacology, 2012, Jan-15, Volume: 674, Issue:2-3

    Topics: Alcohols; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Drug Administration Schedule; Infusion Pumps; Male; Rats; Self Administration; Substance-Related Disorders

2012
Co-sensitivity to the incentive properties of palatable food and cocaine in rats; implications for co-morbid addictions.
    Addiction biology, 2013, Volume: 18, Issue:5

    Topics: Analysis of Variance; Animals; Behavior, Addictive; Choice Behavior; Cocaine; Conditioning, Operant; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Drug-Seeking Behavior; Extinction, Psychological; Food Preferences; Humans; Infusions, Intravenous; Male; Motivation; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Reinforcement Schedule; Self Administration; Time Factors

2013
Chronic mild stress-induced depression-like symptoms in rats and abnormalities in catecholamine uptake in small arteries.
    Psychosomatic medicine, 2012, Volume: 74, Issue:3

    Topics: Analysis of Variance; Anhedonia; Animals; Arteries; Behavior, Animal; Blood Pressure; Catecholamines; Chronic Disease; Cocaine; Corticosterone; Depression; Depressive Disorder; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Heart Rate; Male; Myography; Norepinephrine; Norepinephrine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins; Rats; Resilience, Psychological; Stress, Psychological; Sucrose; Vascular Resistance; Vasoconstriction

2012
Susceptibility of ascending dopamine projections to 6-hydroxydopamine in rats: effect of hypothermia.
    Neuroscience, 2002, Volume: 115, Issue:4

    Topics: Animals; Body Temperature; Cell Survival; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine; Efferent Pathways; Hypothermia, Induced; Male; Medial Forebrain Bundle; Nerve Degeneration; Neurons; Neuroprotective Agents; Neurotoxicity Syndromes; Oxidopamine; Pentobarbital; Presynaptic Terminals; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Substantia Nigra; Tyrosine 3-Monooxygenase; Ventral Tegmental Area

2002
Sigma 1 receptor-related neuroactive steroids modulate cocaine-induced reward.
    The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2003, May-01, Volume: 23, Issue:9

    Topics: Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cinnamates; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Psychological; Cyclopropanes; Dehydroepiandrosterone; Disease Susceptibility; Drug Antagonism; Drug Synergism; Enzyme Inhibitors; Finasteride; Male; Mice; Mice, Inbred C57BL; Motor Activity; Pregnenolone; Progesterone; Receptors, sigma; Reward; Sigma-1 Receptor; Steroids

2003
Manipulations during the second, but not the first, week of life increase susceptibility to cocaine self-administration in female rats.
    Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 2003, Volume: 28, Issue:10

    Topics: Animals; Animals, Newborn; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Corticosterone; Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Female; Hippocampus; In Situ Hybridization; Injections, Subcutaneous; Male; Motor Activity; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Receptors, Glucocorticoid; Receptors, Mineralocorticoid; RNA, Complementary; Self Administration; Sex Characteristics; Sodium Chloride; Stress, Psychological; Sulfur Isotopes; Time Factors; Uridine Triphosphate

2003
Cocaine enhances susceptibility to endotoxemic shock in a subset of rats.
    Critical care medicine, 2004, Volume: 32, Issue:1

    Topics: Animals; Blood Pressure; Cardiac Output; Cocaine; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Endotoxemia; Female; Hemodynamics; Injections, Intravenous; Male; Rats; Rats, Inbred Strains; Reference Values; Sensitivity and Specificity; Shock, Septic; Vascular Resistance

2004
Prenatal cocaine exposure increases heart susceptibility to ischaemia-reperfusion injury in adult male but not female rats.
    The Journal of physiology, 2005, May-15, Volume: 565, Issue:Pt 1

    Topics: Animals; Apoptosis; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Female; Heart; Male; Myocardium; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Protein Kinase C; Protein Kinase C-epsilon; Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases; Proto-Oncogene Proteins; Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Reperfusion Injury; Sex Factors; Ventricular Function, Left

2005
Prenatal cocaine exposure increases apoptosis of neonatal rat heart and heart susceptibility to ischemia-reperfusion injury in 1-month-old rat.
    British journal of pharmacology, 2005, Volume: 144, Issue:7

    Topics: Animals; Animals, Newborn; Apoptosis; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Female; In Vitro Techniques; Male; Myocardial Reperfusion Injury; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Ventricular Function, Left

2005
Genetic difference in the sympathetic nervous activity and susceptibility to atherosclerosis in pigeon.
    Atherosclerosis, 1981, Volume: 39, Issue:1

    Topics: Aging; Animals; Aorta; Arteriosclerosis; Cocaine; Columbidae; Disease Susceptibility; Muscle Contraction; Norepinephrine; Sympathetic Nervous System

1981
Prenatal cocaine alters later sensitivity to cocaine-induced seizures.
    Neuroscience letters, 1995, May-26, Volume: 191, Issue:3

    Topics: Animals; Animals, Newborn; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Female; Kindling, Neurologic; Male; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Reaction Time; Seizures; Sex Characteristics

1995
Effect of cocaine on the contracture response to 1% halothane in patients undergoing diagnostic muscle biopsy for malignant hyperthermia.
    Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie, 1995, Volume: 42, Issue:2

    Topics: Adult; Biopsy; Caffeine; Cocaine; Contracture; Disease Susceptibility; Female; Halothane; Humans; Male; Malignant Hyperthermia; Muscle Contraction; Muscle, Skeletal

1995
Pathogenesis and surgical treatment of neurovascular primary headaches.
    Italian journal of neurological sciences, 1995, Volume: 16, Issue:8 Suppl

    Topics: Airway Obstruction; Cell Hypoxia; Cluster Headache; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Edema; Ethmoid Bone; Headache; Humans; Migraine Disorders; Nasal Cavity; Nasal Mucosa; Nasal Septum; Paranasal Sinuses; Retrospective Studies; Serotonin; Sphenoid Bone; Tomography, X-Ray Computed; Treatment Outcome; Trigeminal Nerve

1995
Neurochemical predictors and correlates of vulnerability to cocaine use.
    NIDA research monograph, 1996, Volume: 159

    Topics: Brain; Brain Chemistry; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine; Homovanillic Acid; Humans; Mental Disorders; Motor Activity; Research Design; Substance-Related Disorders

1996
Cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1): association with i.v. drug use.
    Molecular psychiatry, 1997, Volume: 2, Issue:2

    Topics: Administration, Inhalation; Administration, Oral; Adult; Alcoholism; Alleles; Amphetamines; Cocaine; Comorbidity; Disease Susceptibility; Evoked Potentials; Female; Gene Frequency; Genotype; Heroin; Heroin Dependence; Humans; Injections, Intravenous; Male; Middle Aged; Receptors, Cannabinoid; Receptors, Drug; Reward; Risk Factors; Smoking; Substance Abuse, Intravenous; Substance-Related Disorders; Trinucleotide Repeats

1997
Evidence for increased seizure susceptibility in rats exposed to cocaine in utero.
    Brain research. Developmental brain research, 1997, Sep-20, Volume: 102, Issue:2

    Topics: Animals; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Electric Stimulation; Electroencephalography; Female; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Reaction Time; Seizures

1997
Prenatal cocaine exposure increases susceptibility to drug-induced seizures. c-fos induction and brain cocaine levels.
    Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1998, Jun-21, Volume: 846

    Topics: Animals; Brain; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Female; Gene Expression Regulation; Male; Pentylenetetrazole; Pregnancy; Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Seizures; Sex Characteristics

1998
Enhanced acquisition of cocaine self-administration in adult rats with neonatal isolation stress experience.
    Brain research, 2000, Sep-01, Volume: 875, Issue:1-2

    Topics: Aging; Animals; Animals, Newborn; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Operant; Corticosterone; Disease Susceptibility; Motor Activity; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Self Administration; Social Isolation

2000
Enhanced vulnerability to cocaine self-administration is associated with elevated impulse activity of midbrain dopamine neurons.
    The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2000, Dec-01, Volume: 20, Issue:23

    Topics: Action Potentials; Animals; Autoreceptors; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Susceptibility; Dopamine; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Injections, Intravenous; Male; Mesencephalon; Motor Activity; Neurons; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Receptors, Dopamine D2; Self Administration; Spatial Behavior; Substantia Nigra; Ventral Tegmental Area

2000
Different requirements for cAMP response element binding protein in positive and negative reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse.
    The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2001, Dec-01, Volume: 21, Issue:23

    Topics: Alleles; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Brain; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Conditioning, Psychological; Crosses, Genetic; Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Drug Implants; Injections, Intraperitoneal; Mice; Mice, Inbred Strains; Mice, Mutant Strains; Morphine; Morphine Dependence; Motivation; Motor Activity; Narcotic Antagonists; Phenotype; Protein Isoforms; Reinforcement, Psychology; Response Elements; Spatial Behavior

2001
Social rank and vulnerability to drug abuse.
    Nature neuroscience, 2002, Volume: 5, Issue:2

    Topics: Animals; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Hierarchy, Social; Primates; Substance-Related Disorders

2002
The rate of intravenous cocaine administration determines susceptibility to sensitization.
    The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2002, Apr-15, Volume: 22, Issue:8

    Topics: Animals; Apomorphine; Behavior, Animal; Cocaine; Cocaine-Related Disorders; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Drug Tolerance; Injections, Intravenous; Male; Medial Forebrain Bundle; Microinjections; Motor Activity; Oxidopamine; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Time Factors

2002
Cocaine psychoses: a continuum model.
    The American journal of psychiatry, 1975, Volume: 132, Issue:3

    Topics: Aggression; Animals; Anxiety; Bipolar Disorder; Blood Pressure; Cocaine; Delusions; Depression; Disease Models, Animal; Disease Susceptibility; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Euphoria; Hallucinations; Humans; Psychoses, Substance-Induced; Pulse; Schizophrenia; Stress, Psychological; Substance-Related Disorders

1975
A pharmacogenetic evaluation of the role of local anesthetic actions in the cocaine kindling process.
    Brain research, 1991, Oct-25, Volume: 562, Issue:2

    Topics: Animals; Cocaine; Convulsants; Disease Susceptibility; Drug Tolerance; Kindling, Neurologic; Lidocaine; Male; Mice; Mice, Inbred Strains

1991
[Effect of cocaine administration on experimental hepatitis in the mouse caused by MHV-3 virus: preliminary results].
    Bollettino della Societa italiana di biologia sperimentale, 1986, Nov-30, Volume: 62, Issue:11

    Topics: Animals; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Hepatitis, Viral, Animal; Mice; Murine hepatitis virus

1986
The applications of biological vulnerability research to drug abuse prevention.
    NIDA research monograph, 1988, Volume: 89

    Topics: Alcoholism; Animals; Cocaine; Disease Susceptibility; Female; Haplorhini; Humans; Male; Risk Factors; Substance-Related Disorders

1988