clove and African-Swine-Fever

African swine fever (ASF) is a haemorrhagic contagious pig disease generally causing high mortality. ASF is enzootic in Madagascar with outbreaks reported each year. An ASF outbreak occurred in May 2015 in the municipality of Imerintsiatosika in Madagascar. We investigated the outbreak to describe it and to identify risk factors in order to propose control measures, and to document evidence of an ASF outbreak in an enzootic country. We took biological samples from very sick and dying pigs, sold by the farmer to the butcher, for PCR analysis. An active search for all possible farm-cases was carried out. A definition of suspected farm-case was established and we implemented a descriptive survey and a retrospective cohort study. Laboratory results confirmed ASF virus infection. Suspected farm-cases represented 81 farms out of 922. Out of 3081 pigs of infected farms, 44% (95% CI: 42-46%) were sick, of which 47% were sold or slaughtered. Case fatality was 60% (95% CI: 56-63%) while 21% (95% CI: 19-24%) of the diseased pigs recovered. The outbreak duration was nine months and half of the infected farms' pig population remained after the outbreak. Compared to the exotic breed, local pigs had twice the risk of infection. It is the first detailed report of an ASF outbreak in an enzootic situation. The disease still has a large impact with 50% animals lost. However, the case fatality is lower than expected that suggests the possibility of resistance and subclinical cases. Proximity to road and increased number of farms are risk factors so biosecurity measures are needed. Further studies are needed to understand why pigs of local breed are more affected. Finally, an acceptable alternative to the sale of sick animals should be found as this currently is the breeders' means to reducing economic loss.

Topics: African Swine Fever; Animals; Disease Outbreaks; Incidence; Madagascar; Risk Factors; Swine

The performance of Whatman 3-MM filter papers for the collection, drying, shipment and long-term storage of blood at ambient temperature, and for the detection of African swine fever virus and antibodies was assessed. Conventional and real-time PCR, viral isolation and antibody detection by ELISA were performed on paired samples (blood/tissue versus dried-blood 3-MM filter papers) collected from experimentally infected pigs and from farm pigs in Madagascar and Côte d'Ivoire. 3-MM filter papers were used directly in the conventional and real-time PCR without previous extraction of nucleic acids. Tests that performed better with 3-MM filter papers were in descending order: virus isolation, real-time UPL PCR and conventional PCR. The analytical sensitivity of real-time UPL PCR on filter papers was similar to conventional testing (virus isolation or conventional PCR) on organs or blood. In addition, blood-dried filter papers were tested in ELISA for antibody detection and the observed sensitivity was very close to conventional detection on serum samples and gave comparable results. Filter papers were stored up to 9 months at 20-25°C and for 2 months at 37°C without significant loss of sensitivity for virus genome detection. All tests on 3-MM filter papers had 100% specificity compared to the gold standards. Whatman 3-MM filter papers have the advantage of being cheap and of preserving virus viability for future virus isolation and characterization. In this study, Whatman 3-MM filter papers proved to be a suitable support for the collection, storage and use of blood in remote areas of tropical countries without the need for a cold chain and thus provide new possibilities for antibody testing and virus isolation.

Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Animals; Blood Specimen Collection; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Madagascar; Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; Swine; Tropical Climate

Pig production in Madagascar is not sufficient for domestic consumption. Unfortunately, African swine fever (ASF), which is a severe disease, is endemic in Madagascar and constitutes a constant threat for farmers. Therefore, ASF must be eradicated in order to guarantee the development of pig production. One of the main strategies in controlling ASF is stamping out which requires the farmers' collaboration in reporting cases or suspected cases. The objective of this study was to estimate the proportion of farmers who knowingly sell ASF-infected meat without reporting. Since selling ASF-infected meat is prohibited by the government, we used the item count technique (ICT), an indirect questioning technique appropriate for measuring the proportion of people engaged in sensitive behavior, for one subsample, while another subsample was asked directly whether they sell ASF-infected meat. Based on the ICT, approximately 73.2% of farmers who have experienced ASF sell the ASF-infected meat. This estimate was not statistically different from that obtained by direct questioning. In the 28% of interviewed farmers who believe ASF can affect humans, the ICT yielded a higher estimate than did direct questioning, indicating that pig farmers who sell ASF-infected meat hide that fact because of their belief that infected meat might harm human consumers, not because of the law. The ICT was thus a suitable technique to address the problem of sensitive behavior. In the case of ASF outbreaks, the Malagasy government should enforce the law more strictly and provide compensation as incentive for reporting cases.

Topics: African Swine Fever; Animal Husbandry; Animals; Commerce; Disease Outbreaks; Food Microbiology; Food Safety; Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; Humans; Interviews as Topic; Madagascar; Swine

Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Animals; Biomedical Research; Education, Veterinary; Humans; Madagascar; Students; Swine; Veterinary Medicine

Since its introduction in Madagascar in 1998, African swine fever (ASF) has severely affected national pig production and persists as a common disease in that country. Two of its natural hosts in the African continent, the bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and tick vectors of the Ornithodoros moubata complex, are reported in west and central regions of the island. However, their role in the maintenance and transmission of the virus has been insufficiently studied. In this work, we tried to assess their potential role in the epidemiology of the disease in Madagascar, by assessing the levels of interaction between (i) ASF virus (ASFV) and bushpigs and (ii) between soft ticks and domestic and wild suids in north-western Madagascar. Twenty-seven sera and 35 tissue samples from bushpigs were collected and analysed for the presence of anti-ASF antibodies and viral DNA. In addition, the sera from 27 bushpigs and 126 domestic pigs were analysed with an ELISA test for the detection of antibodies against salivary antigens from Ornithodoros ticks. No circulation of ASFV or anti-ASFV antibodies nor anti-tick antibodies were detected in bushpigs. However, seven of the domestic pig sera (5.6% of the total sample population) were antibody positive for O. moubata antigens. The probability of freedom from ASFV in the bushpig population using Bayesian statistical methods ranged between 73% and 84%. The probabilities of absence of anti-tick antibodies in domestic and wild pigs were estimated at 63% and 71%, respectively. These preliminary results suggest that bushpigs are unlikely to play a significant role in the maintenance and transmission of ASFV in Madagascar. Nevertheless, further ASFV surveys are needed on that species to confirm this assumption. In addition, the presence of antibodies against O. moubata in domestic pigs suggests that soft ticks may be able to maintain ASFV within a domestic pig cycle in areas of Madagascar where they remain present.

Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Animals; Animals, Wild; Antibodies, Viral; Arachnid Vectors; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Madagascar; Ornithodoros; Saliva; Sus scrofa; Swine

African Swine Fever (ASF) was diagnosed for the first time in Madagascar in 1998. ASF has apparently been introduced from the African continent to the southern part of the island with a subsequent spread to other regions except for areas in the north and in the west. The epidemic has had severe economic consequences for the home market of pork meat production. This article reviews the course of the epidemic with particular emphasis on the vectors involved in the transmission of the virus, such as the soft tick, Ornithodoros moubata porcinus. Presence of this vector and of the bushpig, Potamochoerus larvatus, as a potential wild reservoir, are some of the major obstacles in control of ASF in Madagascar. A veterinary disease surveillance system has to be urgently warranted.

Topics: African Swine Fever; Animals; Communicable Diseases, Emerging; Disease Outbreaks; Disease Reservoirs; Insect Vectors; Madagascar; Meat-Packing Industry; Needs Assessment; Population Surveillance; Seroepidemiologic Studies; Swine; Ticks

African swine fever (ASF) suspected clinically in Madagascar (1998-9) was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nucleotide sequencing, following virus isolation. No haemadsorption or cytopathic effect could be detected following leukocyte inoculation, but viral growth in cells was confirmed by PCR. Detection of ASF virus genome was carried out by amplification of a highly conserved region coding for the p72 protein. Nucleotide sequencing of the amplicon revealed 99.2% nucleotide identity between the recent Malagasy strains and a virus recovered from the 1994 outbreak in Mozambique (SPEC265). A serological survey performed on 449 sera, revealed that only 5.3% of the sera taken from pigs between 1998 and 1999 were positive.

Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Amino Acid Sequence; Animals; Base Sequence; Disease Outbreaks; DNA, Viral; Madagascar; Molecular Epidemiology; Molecular Sequence Data; Phylogeny; Polymerase Chain Reaction; Population Surveillance; Sequence Alignment; Serotyping; Swine

African swine fever (ASF) has recently made its appearance in Madagascar. Ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata group, considered to be O. porcinus Walton, 1962 were formerly known to occur in western Madagascar, but seem to have disappeared from that region. However, three new sites where they occur were found in the humid and cool central highlands of Anatananarivo province. These ticks are known to be efficient reservoirs and vectors of ASF and constitute a considerable complication to the control of the disease. The authors also discuss another potentially complicating factor, the presence of a species of African bushpig, Potamochoerus larvatus.

Topics: African Swine Fever; African Swine Fever Virus; Animals; Arachnid Vectors; Madagascar; Ornithodoros; Swine