1-2-4-trioxane and Neoplasms

The development of new efficient therapeutics for the treatment of malaria and cancer is an important endeavor. Over the past 15 years, much attention has been paid to the synthesis of dimeric structures, which combine two units of artemisinin, as lead compounds of interest. A wide variety of atemisinin-derived dimers containing different linkers demonstrate improved properties compared to their parent compounds (e.g., circumventing multidrug resistance), making the dimerization concept highly compelling for development of efficient antimalarial and anticancer drugs. The present Perspective highlights recent developments on different types of artemisinin-derived dimers and their structural and functional features. Particular emphasis is put on the respective in vitro and in vivo studies, exploring the role of the length and nature of linkers on the activities of the dimers, and considering the future prospects of the dimerization concept for drug discovery.

Topics: Animals; Antimalarials; Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic; Artemisinins; Dimerization; Heterocyclic Compounds; Humans; Malaria; Molecular Conformation; Neoplasms

Trioxane based compounds such as artemisinin and its synthetic and semi-synthetic analogues constitute promising class of antimalarial agents. The pharmaceutical development of artemisinin was started in 1971 after the isolation from Chinese medicinal plant Artemisia annua and this compound has drawn much attention from medical chemist and pharmacologist worldwide. Researchers from across the globe have independently and collaboratively conducted various studies on the artemisinin system in an attempt to identify lead molecules for malaria chemotherapy. This systematic study led to the discovery of artemether, arteether, dihydroartemisinin, and sodium artesunate which are being used as antimalarial drug for the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum related infections. These studies also revealed that the trioxane bridge is essential for the antimalarial activity of this class of compounds. Another class of structurally simple peroxides that emerged from these studies was the 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes. Some of the tetraoxane based compounds have shown promising antimalarial potential, and much of work has been done on this type of compound in recent years. Apart from their antimalarial activity, these classes of compounds have also shown promising anticancer and antibacterial activity. To this end, an attempt has been made to describe the medicinal potential of trioxane and tetraoxane-based compounds. Literature from 1999 has been critically reviewed and an attempt has been made to discuss structure activity relationship study among the series of trioxane and tetraoxane based compounds.

Topics: Animals; Antimalarials; Antineoplastic Agents; Artemisia; Artemisinins; Heterocyclic Compounds; Humans; Malaria; Neoplasms; Plasmodium; Tetraoxanes

The active site of oxidative phosphorylation and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) biosynthesis is proposed to consist of thioretinaco, a complex of two molecules of thioretinamide with cobalamin, oxidized to the disulfonium derivative, thioretinaco ozonide, and complexed with oxygen, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, inorganic phosphate and ATP. Reduction of the active site complex by electrons from mitochondrial electron transport complexes releases ATP from binding to the active site, producing nicotinamide riboside and hydroperoxide and generating a membrane potential from proton transport to the active site. Opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore from decreased mitochondrial melatonin leads to loss of the active site complex from mitochondrial membranes, as observed in aging and dementia. Loss of the active site complex from mitochondria also results from opening of the permeability transition pore and from decomposition of the disulfonium active site by electrophilic carcinogens, oncogenic viruses and microbes which cause depletion of adenosyl methionine because of increased biosynthesis of polyamines, and by free radical oxygen species generated by ionizing radiation, and by catecholamines. Thus the loss of thioretinaco ozonide from mitochondria produces the impaired oxidative phosphorylation, oxidative stress, calcium influx, apoptosis, aerobic glycolysis, and mitochondrial dysfunction that are observed in chemical carcinogenesis, microbial carcinogenesis, traumatic brain injury, aging and dementia.

Topics: Adenosine Triphosphate; Carcinogenesis; Catalytic Domain; Heterocyclic Compounds; Homocysteine; Humans; Mitochondria; Mitochondrial Diseases; Neoplasms; Oxidation-Reduction; Oxidative Phosphorylation; Oxidative Stress; Oxygen; Reactive Oxygen Species; Vitamin B 12

The response to chemotherapy in cancer patients is frequently compromised by drug resistance. Although chemoresistance is a multifactorial phenomenon, many studies have demonstrated that altered drug metabolism through the expression of phase II conjugating enzymes, including glutathione transferases (GSTs), in tumor cells can be directly correlated with resistance against a wide range of marketed anticancer drugs. In particular, overexpression of glutathione transferase P1 (GSTP1) appears to be a factor for poor prognosis during cancer therapy. Former and ongoing clinical trials have confirmed GSTP1 inhibition as a principle for antitumor therapy. A new series of 1,2,4-trioxane GSTP1 inhibitors were designed via a type II photooxygenation route of allylic alcohols followed by acid-catalyzed peroxyacetalization with aldehydes. A set of novel inhibitors exhibit low micromolar to high nanomolar inhibition of GSTP1, revealing preliminary SAR for further lead optimization. Importantly, high selectivity over another two human GST classes (GSTA1 and GSTM2) has been achieved. The trioxane GSTP1 inhibitors may therefore serve as a basis for the development of novel drug candidates in overcoming chemoresistance.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Drug Design; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; Enzyme Inhibitors; Glutathione S-Transferase pi; Glutathione Transferase; Heterocyclic Compounds; Humans; Models, Molecular; Neoplasms

The desymmetrization of p-peroxyquinols using a Brønsted acid-catalyzed acetalization/oxa-Michael cascade was achieved in high yields and selectivities for a variety of aliphatic and aryl aldehydes. Mechanistic studies suggest that the reaction proceeds through a dynamic kinetic resolution of the peroxy hemiacetal intermediate. The resulting 1,2,4-trioxane products were derivatized and show potent cancer cell-growth inhibition.

Topics: Acids; Antineoplastic Agents; Catalysis; Cell Line, Tumor; Cell Survival; Heterocyclic Compounds; Humans; Neoplasms; Oxyquinoline; Stereoisomerism