squalestatin-1 and farnesyl-pyrophosphate

Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) is a branch-point intermediate in the mevalonate pathway that is normally converted mainly to squalene by squalene synthase in the first committed step of sterol biosynthesis. Treatment with the squalene synthase inhibitor squalestatin 1 (SQ1) causes accumulation of FPP, its dephosphorylated metabolite farnesol, and several oxidized farnesol-derived metabolites. In addition, SQ1 treatment of primary cultured rat hepatocytes increases CYP2B expression through a mechanism that requires FPP synthesis and activation of the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR). Because direct farnesol treatment also increases CYP2B expression, it seems likely that SQ1-mediated CAR activation requires FPP dephosphorylation to farnesol. The lipid phosphatase, phosphatidic acid phosphatase domain containing 2 (PPAPDC2), was recently reported to catalyze FPP dephosphorylation. We therefore determined the effect of overexpressing or knocking down PPAPDC2 on SQ1-mediated CAR activation in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. Cotransfection of rat hepatocytes with a plasmid expressing rat or human PPAPDC2 enhanced SQ1-mediated activation of a CAR-responsive reporter by 1.7- or 2.4-fold over the SQ1-mediated activation that was produced when hepatocytes were cotransfected with empty expression plasmid. Similarly, transduction of rat hepatocytes with a recombinant adenovirus expressing PPAPDC2 enhanced SQ1-mediated CYP2B1 mRNA induction by 1.4-fold over the induction that was seen in hepatocytes transduced with control adenovirus. Cotransfection with a short hairpin RNA targeting PPAPDC2 reduced SQ1-mediated CAR activation by approximately 80% relative to the activation that occurred in hepatocytes transfected with nontargeting short hairpin RNA. These results indicate that PPAPDC2 plays an important role in SQ1-mediated CAR activation, most likely by catalyzing the conversion of FPP to farnesol.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Cells, Cultured; Constitutive Androstane Receptor; Cytochrome P-450 CYP2B1; Hepatocytes; Humans; Male; Phosphatidate Phosphatase; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Protein Structure, Tertiary; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear; RNA, Messenger; Sesquiterpenes; Transfection; Tricarboxylic Acids

Skin produces cholesterol and a wide array of sterols and non-sterol mevalonate metabolites, including isoprenoid derivative farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP). To characterize FPP action in epidermis, we generated transcriptional profiles of primary human keratinocytes treated with zaragozic acid (ZGA), a squalene synthase inhibitor that blocks conversion of FPP to squalene resulting in endogenous accumulation of FPP. The elevated levels of intracellular FPP resulted in regulation of epidermal differentiation and adherens junction signaling, insulin growth factor (IGF) signaling, oxidative stress response and interferon (IFN) signaling. Immunosuppressive properties of FPP were evidenced by STAT-1 downregulation and prominent suppression of its nuclear translocation by IFNγ. Furthermore, FPP profoundly downregulated genes involved in epidermal differentiation of keratinocytes in vitro and in human skin ex vivo. Elevated levels of FPP resulted in induction of cytoprotective transcriptional factor Nrf2 and its target genes. We have previously shown that FPP functions as ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), one of the major regulator of epidermal homeostasis. Comparative microarray analyses show significant but not complete overlap between FPP and glucocorticoid regulated genes, suggesting that FPP may have wider transcriptional impact. This was further supported by co-transfection and chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments where we show that upon binding to GR, FPP recruits β-catenin and, unlike glucocorticoids, recruits co-repressor GRIP1 to suppress keratin 6 gene. These findings have many clinical implications related to epidermal lipid metabolism, response to glucocorticoid therapy as well as pleiotropic effects of cholesterol lowering therapeutics, statins. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 2452-2463, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Topics: Adherens Junctions; beta Catenin; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Carrier Proteins; Cell Differentiation; Cell Movement; Cells, Cultured; Dexamethasone; Epidermis; Gene Expression Regulation; Humans; Inflammation; Insulin-Like Growth Factor I; Interferons; Keratin-6; Keratinocytes; Models, Biological; Nerve Tissue Proteins; NF-E2-Related Factor 2; Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis; Oxidative Stress; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Promoter Regions, Genetic; Sesquiterpenes; Signal Transduction; Skin; Transcription, Genetic; Tricarboxylic Acids; Wound Healing

Statins, drugs commonly used to lower serum cholesterol, have been shown to stimulate osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. Statins inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), the first step of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway, leading to the depletion of the isoprenoids farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). The effects of statins on bone have previously been attributed to the depletion of GGPP, because the addition of exogenous GGPP prevented statin-stimulated osteoblast differentiation in vitro. However, in a recent report, we demonstrated that the specific depletion of GGPP did not stimulate but, in fact, inhibited osteoblast differentiation. This led us to hypothesize that isoprenoids upstream of GGPP play a role in the regulation of osteoblast differentiation. We demonstrate here that the expression of HMGCR and FPP synthase decreased during primary calvarial osteoblast differentiation, correlating with decreased FPP and GGPP levels during differentiation. Zaragozic acid (ZGA) inhibits the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway enzyme squalene synthase, leading to an accumulation of the squalene synthase substrate FPP. ZGA treatment of calvarial osteoblasts led to a significant increase in intracellular FPP and resulted in inhibition of osteoblast differentiation as measured by osteoblastic gene expression, alkaline phosphatase activity, and matrix mineralization. Simultaneous HMGCR inhibition prevented the accumulation of FPP and restored osteoblast differentiation. In contrast, specifically inhibiting GGPPS to lower the ZGA-induced increase in GGPP did not restore osteoblast differentiation. The specificity of HMGCR inhibition to restore osteoblast differentiation of ZGA-treated cultures through the reduction in isoprenoid accumulation was confirmed with the addition of exogenous mevalonate. Similar to ZGA treatment, exogenous FPP inhibited the mineralization of primary calvarial osteoblasts. Interestingly, the effects of FPP accumulation on osteoblasts were found to be independent of protein farnesylation. Our findings are the first to demonstrate that the accumulation of FPP impairs osteoblast differentiation and suggests that the depletion of this isoprenoid may be necessary for normal and statin-induced bone formation.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Cell Differentiation; Cell Proliferation; Cells, Cultured; Farnesyltranstransferase; Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors; Lovastatin; Osteoblasts; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Sesquiterpenes; Terpenes; Tricarboxylic Acids

Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP), a key intermediate in the mevalonate pathway and protein farnesylation, can act as an agonist for several nuclear hormone receptors. Here we show a novel mechanism by which FPP inhibits wound healing acting as an agonist for glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Elevation of endogenous FPP by the squalene synthetase inhibitor zaragozic acid A (ZGA) or addition of FPP to the cell culture medium results in activation and nuclear translocation of the GR, a known wound healing inhibitor. We used functional studies to evaluate the effects of FPP on wound healing. Both FPP and ZGA inhibited keratinocyte migration and epithelialization in vitro and ex vivo. These effects were independent of farnesylation and indicate that modulation of FPP levels in skin may be beneficial for wound healing. FPP inhibition of keratinocyte migration and wound healing proceeds, in part, by repression of the keratin 6 gene. Furthermore, we show that the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA-reductase inhibitor mevastatin, which blocks FPP formation, not only promotes epithelialization in acute wounds but also reverses the effect of ZGA on activation of the GR and inhibition of epithelialization. We conclude that FPP inhibits wound healing by acting as a GR agonist. Of special interest is that FPP is naturally present in cells prior to glucocorticoid synthesis and that FPP levels can be further altered by the statins. Therefore, our findings may provide a better understanding of the pleiotropic effects of statins as well as molecular mechanisms by which they may accelerate wound healing.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Cattle; Cell Line; Cell Movement; Enzyme Inhibitors; Epithelial Cells; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Gene Expression Regulation; Glucocorticoids; Humans; Keratin-6; Keratinocytes; Ligands; Lovastatin; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Promoter Regions, Genetic; Receptors, Glucocorticoid; Sesquiterpenes; Signal Transduction; Tricarboxylic Acids; Wound Healing

We performed a focused siRNA screen in an A549 dengue type 2 New Guinea C subgenomic replicon cell line (Rluc-replicon) that contains a Renilla luciferase cassette. We found that siRNA mediated knock down of mevalonate diphospho decarboxylase (MVD) inhibited viral replication of the Rluc-replicon and DEN-2 NGC live virus replication in A549 cells. When the Rluc-replicon A459 cells were grown in delipidated media the replicon expression was suppressed and MVD knock down could further sensitize Renilla expression. Hymeglusin and zaragozic acid A could inhibit DEN-2 NGC live virus replication in K562 cells, while lovastatin could inhibit DEN-2 NGC live virus replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Renilla expression could be rescued in fluvastatin treated A549 Rluc-replicon cells after the addition of mevalonate, and partially restored with geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, or farnesyl pyrophosphate. Our data suggest genetic and pharmacological modulation of cholesterol biosynthesis can regulate dengue virus replication.

Topics: Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Carboxy-Lyases; Cholesterol; Dengue Virus; Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated; Fluvastatin; Gene Knockdown Techniques; Humans; Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors; Indoles; K562 Cells; Mevalonic Acid; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Replicon; RNA, Small Interfering; Sesquiterpenes; Tricarboxylic Acids; Virus Replication

A sensitive, nonradioactive analytical method has been developed to simultaneously determine the concentrations of farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) in cultured cells. Following extraction, enzyme assays involving recombinant farnesyl protein transferase or geranylgeranyl protein transferase I are performed to conjugate FPP or GGPP to dansylated peptides. The reaction products are then separated and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a fluorescence detector at the excitation wavelength 335 nm and the emission wavelength 528 nm. The retention times for farnesyl-peptide and geranylgeranyl-peptide are 8.4 and 16.9 min, respectively. The lower limit of detection is 5 pg of FPP or GGPP ( approximately 0.01 pmol). A linear response has been established over a range of 5-1000 pg ( approximately 0.01-2 pmol) with good reproducibility. The method has been used to determine the levels of FPP (0.125+/-0.010 pmol/10(6)cells) and GGPP (0.145+/-0.008 pmol/10(6)cells) in NIH3T3 cells. Furthermore, changes in FPP and GGPP levels following treatment of cells with isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway inhibitors were measured. This method is suitable for the determination of the concentrations of FPP and GGPP in any cell type or tissue.

Topics: 3T3 Cells; Alkyl and Aryl Transferases; Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Evaluation Studies as Topic; Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors; Lovastatin; Mass Spectrometry; Mice; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Sesquiterpenes; Tricarboxylic Acids

To get some insight into the regulatory mechanisms controlling the sterol branch of the mevalonate pathway, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Bright Yellow-2) cell suspensions were treated with squalestatin-1 and terbinafine, two specific inhibitors of squalene synthase (SQS) and squalene epoxidase, respectively. These two enzymes catalyze the first two steps involved in sterol biosynthesis. In highly dividing cells, SQS was actively expressed concomitantly with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase and both sterol methyltransferases. At nanomolar concentrations, squalestatin was found to inhibit efficiently sterol biosynthesis as attested by the rapid decrease in SQS activity and [(14)C]radioactivity from acetate incorporated into sterols. A parallel dose-dependent accumulation of farnesol, the dephosphorylated form of the SQS substrate, was observed without affecting farnesyl diphosphate synthase steady-state mRNA levels. Treatment of tobacco cells with terbinafine is also shown to inhibit sterol synthesis. In addition, this inhibitor induced an impressive accumulation of squalene and a dose-dependent stimulation of the triacylglycerol content and synthesis, suggesting the occurrence of regulatory relationships between sterol and triacylglycerol biosynthetic pathways. We demonstrate that squalene was stored in cytosolic lipid particles, but could be redirected toward sterol synthesis if required. Inhibition of either SQS or squalene epoxidase was found to trigger a severalfold increase in enzyme activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, giving first evidence for a positive feedback regulation of this key enzyme in response to a selective depletion of endogenous sterols. At the same time, no compensatory responses mediated by SQS were observed, in sharp contrast to the situation in mammalian cells.

Topics: Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Carbon Radioisotopes; Cell Line; Enzyme Inhibitors; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic; Gene Expression Regulation, Plant; Hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA Reductases; Methyltransferases; Naphthalenes; Nicotiana; Oxygenases; Phosphoric Monoester Hydrolases; Phytosterols; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Sesquiterpenes; Squalene; Squalene Monooxygenase; Terbinafine; Tricarboxylic Acids; Triglycerides; Triterpenes; Up-Regulation

Plant isoprenoids represent a large group of compounds with a wide range of physiological functions. In the cytosol, isoprenoids are synthesized via the classical acetate/mevalonate pathway. In this pathway, farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) occupies a central position, from which isoprene units are dispatched to the different classes of isoprenoids, with sterols as the major end products. The present work deals with effects of squalestatin (SQ) on the metabolism of FPP in proliferating and synchronized cultured tobacco cv. Bright Yellow-2 cells. SQ is a potent inhibitor of squalene synthase (SQS), the first committed enzyme in the sterol pathway. At nanomolar concentrations, SQ severely impaired cell growth and sterol biosynthesis, as attested by the rapid decrease in SQS activity. At the same time, it triggered a several-fold increase in both the enzymic activity and mRNA levels of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase. When SQ was added to cells synchronized by aphidicolin treatment, it was found to block the cell cycle at the end of G(1) phase, but no cell death was induced. Tobacco cells were also fed exogenous tritiated trans-trans farnesol, the allylic alcohol derived from FPP, in the presence and absence of SQ. Evidence is presented that this compound was incorporated into sterols and ubiquinone Q(10). In the presence of SQ, the sterol pathway was inhibited, but no increase in the radioactivity of ubiquinone was observed, suggesting that this metabolic channel was already saturated under normal conditions.

Topics: Aphidicolin; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Carbon Radioisotopes; Cell Cycle; Cell Division; Cell Line; Coenzymes; Farnesol; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; G1 Phase; Hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA Reductases; Mitochondria; Nicotiana; Plants, Toxic; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Radioisotope Dilution Technique; Sesquiterpenes; Sodium Acetate; Sterols; Transcription, Genetic; Tricarboxylic Acids; Ubiquinone

Squalene synthase catalyzes the first committed step in cholesterol biosynthesis and thus is important as a potential target for therapeutic intervention. In order to determine the important functional domains of the protein, the amino and carboxyl terminal regions thought to be involved in membrane association of the enzyme were removed genetically. The 30 N-terminal amino acids were deleted with no apparent effect on activity. Additional deletion of 81 or 97 amino acids from the C-terminus completely ablated activity. However, a protein with a C-terminal deletion of 47 amino acids retained full activity. The latter enzyme was readily overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The pure, doubly truncated enzyme exhibited a specific activity similar to that reported for the protease-solubilized rat liver enzyme, had a KM for farnesyl diphosphate similar to that observed for native enzyme, and was inhibited by anionic compounds to the same degree as native enzyme. Using the vapor diffusion method, the protein was crystallized as an enzyme-inhibitor complex, yielding orthorhombic crystals which diffracted to 2.2 A.

Topics: Amino Acid Sequence; Crystallization; Crystallography, X-Ray; Enzyme Inhibitors; Escherichia coli; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Gene Expression; Humans; Kinetics; Molecular Sequence Data; Molecular Structure; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Polymorphism, Genetic; Recombinant Proteins; Sequence Alignment; Sequence Analysis, DNA; Sequence Deletion; Sesquiterpenes

We have used the potent squalene synthase inhibitor squalestatin I to investigate the regulation of isoprenoid metabolism in rat liver Fresh-frozen liver pieces from normal rats and rats infused with squalestatin I at 16 micrograms h-1 for 16 h were assayed for farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) by HPLC after dephosphorylation. Levels of FPP and GGPP were 5.4 +/- 1.6 nmol g-1 and 1.6 +/- 0.7 nmol g-1 (n = 13) wet wt., respectively, in control livers and 110 + 41 nmol g-1 and 3.0 +/- 2.2 nmol g-1 (n = 13) in livers from squalestatin I infused rats. In order to determine the relative level of isopentenyl pyrophosphate, liver slices from normal and squalestatin I infused rats were labeled to steady-state with [3H]acetate. Analysis of isoprenoid pyrophosphate intermediates by radio-HPLC after dephosphorylation indicated that squalestatin I brought about a 20-fold increase in the relative level of FPP (confirming direct analysis) and a 5-fold increase in the relative level of IPP. No change in either of these compounds was observed in livers from cholesterol-fed rats. To determine if squalestatin I altered the synthesis of nonsterol products, rats were subjected to long term subcutaneous infusion. After 14 days of infusion of 15 micrograms h-1, the median chain length of hepatic dolichol and dolichyl phosphate increased from C95 to C115 and the levels of these lipids increased approximately 3-fold. In addition, dolichyl phosphate mannose synthase activity in microsomes from squalestatin I treated rats was increased relative to controls when assayed in the absence of dolichyl phosphate. Squalestatin I affected ubiquinone metabolism to a lesser extent: chain lengths shifted from a Q10/Q9 ratio of 0.118 +/- 0.021 in the normal rat to 0.185 +/- 0.016 in the squalestatin I treated animals, and levels rose by approximately 90%. These results suggest that the isoprenoid pyrophosphate intermediates are shared by the cholesterol, dolichol and ubiquinone pathways and further show that the dolichol and ubiquinone pathways are not saturated. Apparently, under normal conditions, the levels of these intermediates are maintained relatively constant by coordinate enzyme regulation, thereby ensuring a constant rate of synthesis of nonsterols.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Enzyme Inhibitors; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Hemiterpenes; Liver; Male; Organophosphorus Compounds; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Sesquiterpenes; Tricarboxylic Acids

We have cloned and utilized a cDNA corresponding to the human squalene synthase gene to generate active enzyme from yeast and baculoviral expression systems. Expression of human squalene synthase in yeast resulted in production of active enzyme in cellular lysates. The presence of the active human enzyme, however, was insufficient to rescue growth of spores defective in yeast squalene synthase function, suggesting that structural differences in the yeast and human enzymes may affect localization or folding of the protein. Expression of the human enzyme in Sf-9 insect cells after infection with recombinant baculovirus encoding the human squalene synthase gene resulted in detection of substantial enzymatic activity in cell lysate preparations. Following extraction from the Sf-9 cells, the human enzyme was purified to near homogeneity utilizing a series of ion-exchange chromatography steps with an overall yield of purified protein of approximately 5 mg per liter of Sf-9 cell culture. The purified enzyme was characterized through steady-state kinetic and physical measurements and the kinetic constants are consistent with values observed for other squalene synthases. Zaragozic acid C was found to be a competitive inhibitor with respect to farnesyl pyrophosphate and has a Kis value of 250 pM (@ [NADPH] = 5 mM). Inhibition experiments with zaragozic acid C at low (approximately 0.5 x Km) and high (approximately 10 x Km) concentrations of NADPH indicated that the inhibitor does not bind in the enzyme's NADPH binding domain. These studies demonstrate that the human enzyme can be prepared from baculovirus-infected Sf-9 cells in a catalytically active configuration and in sufficient quantities to allow for further biochemical, kinetic, and structural characterization.

Topics: Amino Acid Sequence; Animals; Baculoviridae; Base Sequence; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Cells, Cultured; Cloning, Molecular; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Genetic Complementation Test; Genetic Vectors; Humans; Molecular Sequence Data; NADP; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Recombinant Proteins; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Sesquiterpenes; Species Specificity; Spodoptera

Squalene synthetase (SQS, EC 2.5.1.21) catalyzes the first committed step in the formation of cholesterol and thus represents an ideal site for selectively inhibiting sterol formation. Previous studies have demonstrated that the fungal metabolite, zaragozic acid A (ZGA-A), inhibits SQS activity by mimicking the substrate farnesyl pyrophosphate, the reaction intermediate presqualene pyrophosphate, or both, through a process that confers increased apparent potency in the presence of reduced enzyme concentrations, an observation consistent with either tight binding reversible competitive inhibition or mechanism-based irreversible inactivation. The studies outlined in this report provide multiple lines of evidence indicating that ZGA-A acts as a mechanism-based irreversible inactivator of SQS. 1) Inhibition of SQS by ZGA-A is dependent on the [SQS] present in the incubation reaction, and this inhibition is time-dependent and follows pseudo-first order reaction kinetics, exhibiting kobs values that range between 2 x 10(-4)/s and 23 x 10(-4)/s for [ZGA-A] within the log-linear range of the inhibition curve, and a bimolecular rate constant of 2.3 x 10(5) M-1s-1.2) SQS activity is titratable by ZGA-A, such that for each [ZGA-A] evaluated, inactivation exhibits a threshold [SQS] whereby enzyme activity at lower [SQS] is totally inhibited. 3) Time-dependent inactivation exhibits saturation kinetics with a Km for the process of 2.5 nM, which is approximately equal to the IC50 for SQS inhibition under these conditions, suggesting that inactivation results from selective modification of a functional group of the enzyme active center rather than from a nonspecific bimolecular reaction mechanism and that most, if not all of the inhibition results from irreversible inactivation. 4) Saturable, time-dependent inactivation occurs with similar inactivation kinetics for both the microsomal and trypsin-solubilized forms of the enzyme, indicating that irreversible inactivation by ZGA-A is not a consequence of membrane modification but is a direct effect of the inhibitor on the enzyme. 5) Inactivation is biphasic, exhibiting a rapid ("burst") phase followed by a second, pseudo-first order phase, similar to that previously noted for irreversible inactivators in other enzyme systems, and occurs even in the presence of 5 mM concentrations of the nucleophylic scavenger dithiothreitol, suggesting that the reaction between ZGA-A and SQS occurs at or near the active center prior to dif

Topics: Animals; Binding Sites; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Kinetics; Male; Microsomes; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Sesquiterpenes; Structure-Activity Relationship; Tricarboxylic Acids

The effects of squalestatin 1 on rat brain and liver homogenates and on Chinese hamster ovary tissue culture cells have been investigated. This compound effectively inhibits squalene biosynthesis in a highly selective manner. Cytoplasmic farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthases are not affected, which is also the case for microsomal cis-prenyltransferase. In tissue culture cells, squalestatin 1 inhibits cholesterol biosynthesis completely, but does not alter dolichol synthesis or protein isoprenylation to a great extent. Incorporation of [3H]mevalonate into ubiquinone-9 and -10 increases 3-4-fold, probably as a result of increased synthesis of this lipid. Squalestatin 1 appears not only to be an effective inhibitor of cholesterol biosynthesis, but also to be more specific than other inhibitors used earlier in various in vitro and in vivo systems.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; CHO Cells; Cricetinae; Lipids; Male; Mevalonic Acid; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Rats; Rats, Sprague-Dawley; Sesquiterpenes; Tricarboxylic Acids; Ubiquinone

We have identified and characterized two novel allyl pyrophosphatase activities from rat liver microsomes. One specifically hydrolyzes farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) to farnesol and the other converts geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) to geranylgeranol. Hence, we named them farnesyl pyrophosphatase (FPPase) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphatase (GGPPase) activities, respectively. Other allyl pyrophosphates, i.e., isopentenyl pyrophosphate, dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate, and geranyl pyrophosphate, did not act as substrates for these activities. Both activities are metal ion independent and exhibit acidic pH optima (5.5 and 6.0). Microsomal FPPase has a Km for FPP of 7 microM and a specific activity of 6.8 nmol/min/mg protein at pH 5.5. GGPP is a potent noncompetitive inhibitor of FPPase. FPP has no inhibitory effect on GGPPase activity. Microsomal GGPPase has a Km for GGPP of 12 microM and a specific activity of 14 nmol/min/mg protein. The Km of FPPase activity for FPP increases with an increase in pH. The GGPPase activity remains unaffected with an increase in pH. Metal ions Zn2+ and Mn2+ are potent inhibitors of GGPPase activity. Zaragozic acid B is a weak inhibitor of FPPase/GGPPase activities as compared to squalene synthase. GGPPase activity is inhibited with a fourfold higher IC50 (20 microM) as compared to FPPase (5 microM). Hence, the FPPase and GGPPase activities can be differentiated by zaragozic acid B inhibition. Kinetic analysis of inhibition of FPPase by zaragozic acid B further indicates that it is a mixed type noncompetitive inhibitor.

Topics: Animals; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds; Bridged Bicyclo Compounds, Heterocyclic; Cations, Divalent; Farnesyl-Diphosphate Farnesyltransferase; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; In Vitro Techniques; Kinetics; Microsomes, Liver; Polyisoprenyl Phosphates; Pyrophosphatases; Rats; Sesquiterpenes; Substrate Specificity; Tricarboxylic Acids