pectenotoxin-2 and dinophysistoxin-2

Galicia is an area with a strong mussel aquaculture industry in addition to other important bivalve mollusc fisheries. Between 2014 and 2017, 18,862 samples were analyzed for EU regulated marine lipophilic toxins. Okadaic acid (OA) was the most prevalent toxin and the only single toxin that produced harvesting closures. Toxin concentrations in raft mussels were generally higher than those recorded in other bivalves, justifying the use of this species as an indicator. The Rías of Pontevedra and Muros were the ones most affected by OA and DTX2 and the Ría of Ares by YTXs. In general, the outer areas of the Rías were more affected by OA and DTX2 than the inner ones. The OA level reached a maximum in spring, while DTX2 was almost entirely restricted to the fall-winter season. YTXs peaked in August-September. The toxins of the OA group were nearly completely esterified in all the bivalves studied except mussels and queen scallops. Risk of intoxication with the current monitoring system is low. In less than 2% of cases did the first detection of OA in an area exceed the regulatory limit. In no case, could any effect on humans be expected. The apparent intoxication and depuration rates were similar and directly related, suggesting that the rates are regulated mainly by oceanographic characteristics.

Topics: Animals; Biological Monitoring; Bivalvia; Food Contamination; Furans; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusk Venoms; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Pyrans; Spain

Toxins produced by harmful algae are associated with detrimental health effects and mass mortalities of marine mammals. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is generally used to confirm the presence of algal toxins in marine mammals. Sample preparation and LC-MS/MS methods for the determination of three diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins (okadaic acid, OA; dinophysistoxin-1, DTX1; dinophysistoxin-2, DTX2) and pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) in bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) urine and tissue samples were evaluated using spike-and-recovery tests. Sample clean-up with either reversed-phase silica or polymeric solid-phase extraction (SPE) reduced interference of sample matrices and improved toxin recoveries, with polymeric SPE showing higher sample loading capacity. LC separation on Xbridge C18 columns using acetonitrile/water gradient elutions with ammonia as the additive was chosen for its high detectivity and sensitivity in the MS detection of DSP toxins in negative ion mode. The retention times of OA, DTX1, and DTX2, separated as negative ions, increased with LC column temperature while the retention time of PTX2, separated as the neutral molecule, was weakly affected. At the same column temperature, retention times of OA, DTX1, and DTX2 gradually increased as the mobile phases aged while the retention time of PTX2 remained unchanged; higher column temperatures resulted in a greater increase in the retention time of each DSP toxin with mobile phase aging. Average recoveries of the 4 toxins in bottlenose dolphin samples ranged from 80% to 130% with relative standard deviations of less than 15% using the LC mobile phases prepared within one week at a column temperature of 30°C or 40°C. The preferred column temperature was 30°C, as the retention times of DSP toxins were less affected by mobile phase aging at this temperature. The limit of detection of each toxin analyzed in bottlenose dolphin samples was 2.8 ng/g or less in tissue samples and 0.7 ng/ml or less in urine.

Topics: Animals; Bottle-Nosed Dolphin; Chromatography, Liquid; Diarrhea; Furans; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Okadaic Acid; Pyrans; Shellfish Poisoning; Solid Phase Extraction; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Different toxin profiles of dinophysistoxins and pectenotoxins have been reported before between blue mussel and other bivalve species, such as common cockle, razor clam, clams, etc. Comparison of toxins present in plankton in mussel growing areas and in cockle growing areas, respectively, showed there was no particular incidence of dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) in plankton from mussel growing areas that could account for the higher percentage of DTX2 in relation to okadaic acid (OA) found in mussels; or of pectenotoxin-2 in cockle growing areas that could explain the higher levels of pectenotoxin-2 seco acid (PTX2sa) found in cockles. A detoxification experiment between mussels and cockles showed the higher percentage of DTX2 in mussels was due to slower elimination of this toxin in relation to OA; while the lower levels of PTX2sa were due to quicker elimination by mussels than by cockles. The slower elimination of DTX2 explains why in late summer and autumn this toxin gradually accumulate in mussels throughout the entire coast, while other bivalves species have a lower percentage of DTX2, very close to the 3:2 OA:DTX2 ratio found in natural plankton assemblages when Dinophysis acuta predominates. In the clam Donax spp., DTX2 concentration also tends to build up in relation to OA, this being made up predominantly by free DTX2 while esterified DTX2 is found only in trace levels (similarly to what is found in mussel for DTX2). We hypothesise that the esterified forms of OA and DTX2 are more easily eliminated than the free forms, by all shellfish species. The free forms are more difficult to eliminate. This is particularly notable in these two species that present a very low conversion of DTX2 into acyl esters. The high pool of free toxins is partially responsible for these two species (mussel and Donax clams) being the sentinel species for DSP contamination throughout the Portuguese coast. Esters of OA and DTX2 were found in a plankton sample where D. acuta was the predominant toxic species found. The nature of the esters remains to be elucidated. The boiling of these DTX2 esters seems to favour the rearrangement of the parent molecule to the DTX2 isomer, DTX2i, recoverable after alkaline hydrolysis. The isomerization was also observed with DTX2 esters present in mussel, but thus not appear to occur with the same extent with free DTX2.

Topics: Animals; Bivalvia; Decontamination; Digestive System; Dinoflagellida; Environmental Monitoring; Esterification; Furans; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusca; Okadaic Acid; Organ Size; Pyrans; Species Specificity