ferric-ammonium-citrate and ferrous-sulfate

Iron (Fe) encapsulation has the potential to help overcome several major challenges in Fe fortification of foods. It may decrease unwanted sensory changes in fortified products and reduce interactions of Fe with food components that lower Fe bioavailability. However, the effect of encapsulation per se on Fe bioavailability is a concern. Rat studies comparing encapsulated ferrous sulfate, ferric ammonium citrate, and ferrous fumarate to non-encapsulated compounds indicate that a ratio of capsule:substrate of > or = 60:40 may decrease the relative bioavailability (RBV) of the Fe by approximately 20%. At a ratio of capsule:substrate of < or = 50:50, the RBV of encapsulated ferrous sulfate appears to be similar to ferrous sulfate. Even minor changes in capsule composition may influence Fe bioavailability. Encapsulated ferrous fumarate given with ascorbic acid as a complementary food supplement and encapsulated ferrous sulfate fortified into salt have been shown to be efficacious in anemic children. For salt fortification, further refinements in Fe capsule design are needed to increase resistance to moisture and abrasion, while maintaining bioavailability. Studies evaluating the potential efficacy of encapsulated Fe in staple cereals (wheat and maize flours) are needed. A potential barrier to use of encapsulated forms of Fe in staple food fortification is the relatively low melting point of the capsules, which may cause unwanted sensory changes during food preparation. Research and development efforts to improve the quality of coatings and their resistance to high temperatures are ongoing. Process costs for encapsulation can be high, and unless they can be reduced, may limit applications. Further research is needed to determine which encapsulation technologies are most effective in ensuring iron bioavailability from encapsulated compounds.

Topics: Animals; Ascorbic Acid; Biological Availability; Capsules; Cote d'Ivoire; Edible Grain; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Food, Fortified; Ghana; Humans; Iodine; Iron Compounds; Liposomes; Morocco; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Rats; Sodium Chloride, Dietary; Taste

(a) To measure iron absorption by human subjects from citric acid stabilized fish sauce fortified with ferrous sulfate, ferric ammonium citrate or ferrous lactate and (b) to identify the effect of added citric acid (3 g/l) on iron absorption from ferrous sulfate fortified fish sauce.. Iron absorption from the intrinsically labeled compounds was determined via erythrocyte incorporation of isotopic labels ((57)Fe and (58)Fe) using a randomized crossover design. In three separate absorption studies, 10 adult women each consumed a basic test meal of rice and vegetable soup seasoned with isotopically labeled, iron fortified fish sauce.. Iron absorption was significantly lower from ferrous lactate and from ferric ammonium citrate fortified fish sauce than from ferrous sulfate fortified fish sauce. Fractional iron absorption (geometric mean; -1s.d., +1s.d.) was 8.7(3.6; 21.4)% for ferrous lactate compared to 13.0(5.4; 31.4)% from ferrous sulfate, P = 0.003 (study 1) and 6.0(2.5; 14.3)% from ferric ammonium citrate relative to 11.7(4.4; 30.7)% from ferrous sulfate, P < 0.001, in study 2. Citric acid added at a molar ratio of approximately 2.5 to iron had no effect on iron absorption from ferrous sulfate (study 3). Iron absorption in the presence of citric acid was 14.1(6.4; 30.8)% compared to 12.0(5.8; 24.7)% in its absence (P = 0.26).. Iron absorption was 50-100% higher from ferrous sulphate fortified fish sauce than from fish sauce fortified with ferric ammonium citrate or ferrous lactate. In the presence of citric acid as a chelator, ferrous sulfate would appear to be a useful fortificant for fish sauce.. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria.

Topics: Adolescent; Adult; Citric Acid; Cross-Over Studies; Female; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Fish Products; Food, Fortified; Humans; Iron Isotopes; Iron, Dietary; Lactates; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Reference Values

Nedd4 family interacting protein 1 (Ndfip1) is an adaptor protein for the Nedd4 family of ubiquitin ligases that target proteins for degradation. Recent studies confirmed the role of Ndfip1 as a regulator of iron metabolism and pointed out that Ndfip1 was involved in iron homeostasis by regulating the degradation of iron importer divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1). However, little is known about how Ndfip1 is regulated. The aim of this article was to investigate the regulation of Ndfip1 levels and the possible mechanisms. In this study, we investigated the effect of various stimuli, including iron status and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on Ndfip1 expression in MES23.5 dopaminergic cell lines. Results showed that Ndfip1 expression in these cells was enhanced by ferrous iron overload, but not ferric iron overload, and decreased after iron deprivation by deferoxamine. In addition, LPS could significantly increase the expression of Ndfip1. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the regulation of Ndfip1 expression by these various stimuli was achieving by activation of nuclear factor-kappa B. We speculate that iron status and LPS may contribute to the changes of Ndfip1 expression by activation of nuclear factor-kappa B.

Topics: Animals; Carrier Proteins; Cation Transport Proteins; Cell Line, Tumor; Deferoxamine; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Gene Expression Regulation; Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; Iron; Iron Chelating Agents; Lipopolysaccharides; Membrane Proteins; Mice; Neurons; NF-kappa B; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

The absorption of a commercial brand of small-particle reduced iron was evaluated in 10 normal subjects. For each subject, the hemoglobin incorporation method was used to measure the true absorption of 60 mg of iron from either ferrous sulfate or ferric ammonium citrate. The iron tolerance test (ITT) was also studied for these two compounds and for reduced iron. This procedure consisted of measuring the area under the curve of plasma iron elevations at specified times for 6 hours, or the peak plasma iron, corrected by the plasma iron disappearance rate obtained from measuring plasma iron at specified times for 4 hours after the slow intravenous injection of 0.4 mg of iron as ferric citrate. Only the ITT was used to measure the absorption of 60 mg of reduced iron. Reference dose iron ascorbate absorption was measured in each subject. The absorption of ferric ammonium citrate and reduced iron was expressed as percent of dose and also as absorption percent of that of ferrous sulfate. Mean % geometric "true absorptions" were 39.0 for reference dose, 10.4 for FeSO4 and 2.4 for ferric ammonium citrate. The later was 23% that of FeSO4. By ITT the mean geometric % absorptions were 7.9, 3.7 and 3.2 for FeSO4, ferric ammonium citrate and reduced iron respectively, or 47 and 41% of that of FeSO4. We propose that the true absorption of the commercial brand of reduced iron tested was 20% that of FeSO4 based on the relation between the ITT results of reduced iron and the ITT and true absorption values of ferric ammonium citrate in relation to FeSO4. The use of this method for measuring absorption of unlabeled iron compounds is discussed.

Topics: Absorption; Adolescent; Adult; Aged; Biological Availability; Dietary Supplements; Female; Ferric Compounds; Ferritins; Ferrous Compounds; Hemoglobins; Humans; Iron; Iron Radioisotopes; Male; Middle Aged; Particle Size; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Whole-Body Counting

The ability of a microbial invader to acquire iron from its vertebrate host has been recognized as an important virulence mechanism in some pathogenic bacteria. We examined the involvement of similar mechanisms in an experimental infection of mice by a protozoan pathogen of cattle, Tritrichomonas foetus. In a series of experiments, outbred ICR mice were inoculated intraperitoneally with two strains of T. foetus, the moderately virulent KV-1 (approximately 5% mortality rate) and the highly virulent LUB-1MIP (approximately 80% mortality rate). Treatment of mice with ferric ammonium citrate (FeAC) (100 mg/kg per day intraperitoneally) increased the mortality rate caused by the KV-1 infection up to the level determined for the highly virulent strain. The treatment effect was dose dependent and required early administration of FeAC after inoculation of parasites and its continued supply for at least 3 subsequent days. Daily sampling of peritoneal exudate showed that the infection-enhancing effect of iron overload was associated with a stimulation of parasite multiplication, which in the case of KV-1 infection was strongly suppressed in untreated mice. Consistent with these findings, the strain of lower virulence (KV-1) showed considerably lower efficiency accumulating radiolabeled iron from transferrin and a low-molecular source [Fe(III)nitrilotriacetic acid] in vitro. The results indicate an involvement of iron uptake mechanisms by the parasite as a virulence factor in T. foetus infection.

Topics: Animals; Disease Models, Animal; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Injections, Intraperitoneal; Iron; Lactoferrin; Male; Mice; Mice, Inbred ICR; Nitrilotriacetic Acid; Protozoan Infections; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Transferrin; Tritrichomonas foetus; Virulence

Topics: Animals; Cell Division; Cell Line; Culture Media, Serum-Free; Culture Techniques; Dogs; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Iron; Kidney; Kinetics; Nitroprusside; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Transferrin

Two dilute oral iron solutions, made from commonly available nonprescription dietary supplements, were found to enhance the gastrointestinal tract in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of live rats and one human volunteer. The paramagnetic and pharmacologic properties of ferric ammonium citrate were more favorable than those of ferrous sulfate heptahydrate. The paramagnetic iron solutions shorten T1 and T2 relaxation times of water protons in the contrast media-filled gastrointestinal tract, producing easily observable change in NMR intensity. Because these iron solutions are available commercially and are known to be well tolerated, the clinical use of iron-containing NMR contrast agents for the gastrointestinal tract is feasible.

Topics: Animals; Contrast Media; Digestive System; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Humans; Iron; Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Rats; Rats, Inbred Strains; Tomography; Water

The fungistatic capacity and serum ion levels (SI) of guinea pigs given subcutaneous injections of various iron solutions were examined. The administration of 2.0 ml of 0.1 M ferric ammonium sulfate, ferric sulfate, or ferric chloride subcutaneously had no significant effect on the SI 3 h after administration, whereas ferric ammonium citrate, ferric citrate, or ferrous sulfate elevated the SI to 50 to 140 times that necessary to saturate the unbound transferrin in normal sera. The sera from 11 of 15 guinea pigs with an elevated SI remained fungistatic for Trichophyton mentagrophytes, whereas 3 of 15 guinea pigs with an elevated SI remained fungistatic for Rhizopus oryzae. The sera from normal guinea pigs were consistently fungistatic for Rhizopus oryzae. The sera from normal guinea pigs were consistently fungistatic for both T. mentagrophytes and R. oryzae. These data suggest that subcutaneous administration of certain iron compounds can significantly elevate the SI without completely abolishing the fungistatic capacity of the serum.

Topics: Animals; Blood Physiological Phenomena; Chlorides; Ferric Compounds; Ferrous Compounds; Guinea Pigs; Iron; Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; Rhizopus; Trichophyton