dinophysistoxin-2 and pectenotoxin-1

Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) is a specific type of food poisoning, characterized by severe gastrointestinal illness due to the ingestion of filter feeding bivalves contaminated with a specific suite of toxins. It is known that the problem is worldwide and three chemically different groups of toxins have been historically associated with DSP syndrome: okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs) and yessotoxins (YTXs). PTXs and YTXs have been considered as DSP toxins because they can be detected with the bioassays used for the toxins of the okadaic acid group, but diarrhegenic effects have only been proven for OA and DTXs. Whereas, some PTXs causes liver necrosis and YTXs damages cardiac muscle after intraperitoneal injection into mice. On the other hand, azaspiracids (AZAs) have never been included in the DSP group, but they cause diarrhoea in humans. This review summarizes the origin, characterization, structure, activity, mechanism of action, clinical symptoms, method for analysis, potential risk, regulation and perspectives of DSP and associated toxins produced by marine dinoflagellates.

Topics: Animals; Dinoflagellida; Humans; Liver; Macrolides; Mice; Molecular Structure; Mollusk Venoms; Myocardium; Necrosis; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Pyrans; Rats; Shellfish; Shellfish Poisoning; Toxicity Tests

Here, we report different lipophilic toxins (LTs) detected by LC-MS/MS in Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected through 2012 in Todos Santos Bay, northwest Baja California, Mexico. The concentration of okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin 2 (DTX2), and pectenotoxin 2 (PTX2) reached 500 μg kg(-1) during July and increased to 1647 μg kg(-1) in October. These toxins were associated with the presence of Dinophysis fortii and Dinophysis acuminata and a strong stratification of the water column. Other LTs present were yessotoxins, with a maximum concentration of 1080 μg kg(-1) in June. Cyclic imines (13-desmethyl spirolide and gymnodimine) and azaspiracid 1 were also detected in the mussels but at low concentrations. Diarrhetic toxins concentrations evaluated by LC-MS/MS were compared with the results of two mouse bioassay protocols. Positive results were obtained with both MBA protocols in several samples that presented toxicities below 160 μg OA-eq kg(-1), as estimated by LC-MS/MS results whereas other samples returned negative MBA results in samples with concentrations above this level. Therefore, analytical methods need to be applied to confirm the presence of regulated LTs. This is the first report of LTs in mussels cultivated in Mexico. The occurrence of these toxins represents an emerging problem in the region.

Topics: Animals; Chromatography, Liquid; Lipids; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mice; Mice, Inbred ICR; Mytilus; Okadaic Acid; Pyrans; Tandem Mass Spectrometry