dihydroresorufin and resorufin

Resazurin is widely used as a metabolic indicator for living cells, however, there has been considerable debate in the literature with regards to the specific location in the cell where the non-fluorescent resazurin is reduced to the strongly fluorescent resorufin. This lack of clarity about the reduction site makes the use of resazurin reduction data in cytotoxicity studies difficult to interpret. In this study, E. faecalis, a Gram-positive and facultative anaerobic bacterial strain, and the most toxic chlorophenol, pentachlorophenol (PCP), were chosen as models for an anaerobe and toxicant, respectively. By studying the kinetics of resazurin reduction by E. faecalis after different treatments (cell disruption, bacterial filtration, and pre-exposure to toxicant), we confirmed that resazurin reduction to resorufin by live Gram-positive and facultative anaerobic bacterial cells can only happen intracellularly under anaerobic conditions, while resorufin reduction to dihydroresorufin can happen both intracellularly and extracellularly. Based on the understanding of these fundamental mechanisms, we suggest that resazurin reduction can be used as a quick bioassay for measuring cytotoxicity.

Topics: Anaerobiosis; Cytological Techniques; Enterococcus faecalis; Extracellular Space; Fluorescent Dyes; Models, Biological; Oxazines; Oxidation-Reduction; Pentachlorophenol; Toxicity Tests; Xanthenes

The sensitivity of anaerobic digestion metabolism to a wide range of solutes makes it important to be able to monitor toxicants in the feed to anaerobic digesters to optimize their operation. In this study, a rapid fluorescence measurement technique based on resazurin reduction using a microplate reader was developed and applied for the detection of toxicants and/or inhibitors to digesters. A kinetic model was developed to describe the process of resazurin reduced to resorufin, and eventually to dihydroresorufin under anaerobic conditions. By modeling the assay results of resazurin (0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mM) reduction by a pure facultative anaerobic strain, Enterococcus faecalis, and fresh mixed anaerobic sludge, with or without 10 mg L(-1) spiked pentachlorophenol (PCP), we found it was clear that the pseudo-first-order rate constant for the reduction of resazurin to resorufin, k1, was a good measure of "toxicity". With lower biomass density and the optimal resazurin addition (0.1 mM), the toxicity of 10 mg L(-1) PCP for E. faecalis and fresh anaerobic sludge was detected in 10 min. By using this model, the toxicity differences among seven chlorophenols to E. faecalis and fresh mixed anaerobic sludge were elucidated within 30 min. The toxicity differences determined by this assay were comparable to toxicity sequences of various chlorophenols reported in the literature. These results suggest that the assay developed in this study not only can quickly detect toxicants for anaerobic digestion but also can efficiently detect the toxicity differences among a variety of similar toxicants.

Topics: Anaerobiosis; Chlorophenols; Enterococcus faecalis; Fluorescence; Indicators and Reagents; Kinetics; Models, Theoretical; Oxazines; Oxidation-Reduction; Sewage; Toxicity Tests; Xanthenes

The photosensitized reduction of resorufin (RSF), the fluorescent product of Amplex Red, was investigated using electron spin resonance (ESR), optical absorption/fluorescence, and oxygen consumption measurements. Anaerobic reaction of RSF in the presence of the electron donor reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) demonstrated that during visible light irradiation (λ > 300 nm), RSF underwent one-electron reduction to produce a semiquinoneimine-type anion radical (RSF(•) ‾) as demonstrated by direct ESR. Spin-trapping studies of incubations containing RSF, 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) and NADH demonstrated, under irradiation with visible light, the production of the superoxide dismutase (SOD)-sensitive DMPO/(•)OOH adduct. Both absorption and fluorescence spectra of RSF in the presence of NADH demonstrated that the RSF(•) ‾ was further reduced during irradiation with formation of its colorless dihydroquinoneimine form, dihydroresorufin (RSFH₂). Both RSF(•) ‾ and RSFH₂, when formed in an aerobic system, were immediately oxidized by oxygen, which regenerated the dye and formed superoxide. Oxygen consumption measurements with a Clark-type oxygen electrode showed that molecular oxygen was consumed in a light-dependent process. The suppression of oxygen consumption by addition of SOD or catalase further confirmed the production of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide.

Topics: Benzoquinones; Cyclic N-Oxides; Fluorescent Dyes; Hydrogen Peroxide; Light; NAD; Oxazines; Oxidation-Reduction; Oxidative Stress; Photosensitizing Agents; Reactive Oxygen Species; Staining and Labeling; Superoxide Dismutase