cyclin-d1 and perillic-acid

Limonene is a bioactive food component found in citrus peel oil that has shown chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activities in preclinical studies. We conducted an open-label pilot clinical study to determine the human breast tissue disposition of limonene and its associated bioactivity. We recruited 43 women with newly diagnosed operable breast cancer electing to undergo surgical excision to take 2 grams of limonene daily for two to six weeks before surgery. Blood and breast tissue were collected to determine drug/metabolite concentrations and limonene-induced changes in systemic and tissue biomarkers of breast cancer risk or carcinogenesis. Limonene was found to preferentially concentrate in the breast tissue, reaching high tissue concentration (mean = 41.3 μg/g tissue), whereas the major active circulating metabolite, perillic acid, did not concentrate in the breast tissue. Limonene intervention resulted in a 22% reduction in cyclin D1 expression (P = 0.002) in tumor tissue but minimal changes in tissue Ki67 and cleaved caspase-3 expression. No significant changes in serum leptin, adiponectin, TGF-β1, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were observed following limonene intervention. There was a small but statistically significant postintervention increase in insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) levels. We conclude that limonene distributed extensively to human breast tissue and reduced breast tumor cyclin D1 expression that may lead to cell-cycle arrest and reduced cell proliferation. Furthermore, placebo-controlled clinical trials and translational research are warranted to establish limonene's role for breast cancer prevention or treatment.

Topics: Anticarcinogenic Agents; Biomarkers, Tumor; Breast; Breast Neoplasms; Caspase 3; Citrus; Cyclin D1; Cyclohexenes; Female; Follow-Up Studies; Humans; Immunoenzyme Techniques; Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 3; Insulin-Like Growth Factor I; Interleukin-6; Limonene; Middle Aged; Monoterpenes; Neoplasm Staging; Pilot Projects; Prognosis; Terpenes; Tissue Distribution; Transforming Growth Factor beta1

The monoterpene perillyl alcohol (POH) is a naturally occurring anti-cancer compound which is effective against a variety of rodent organ-specific tumor models. To establish the molecular mechanisms of POH and its major metabolite perillic acid (PA) as anti-proliferative agents, their effects on cell proliferation, cell cycle and cell cycle regulatory proteins were studied in HCT 116 human colon cancer cells. POH, and to a lesser extent, PA, exerted a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on cell growth correlated with a G1 arrest. Analysis of G1 cell cycle regulators expression revealed that monoterpenes increased expression of cdk inhibitor p21(Waf1/Cip1) and cyclin E, and decreased expression of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk) 4 and cdk2. Our results suggest that monoterpenes induce growth arrest of colon cancer cells through the up-regulation of p21(Waf1/Cip1) and the down-expression of cyclin D1 and its partner cdk4.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Cell Division; Colonic Neoplasms; Cyclin D1; Cyclin E; Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21; Cyclins; Cyclohexenes; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; G1 Phase; Gene Expression; Humans; Monoterpenes; RNA, Messenger; S Phase; Terpenes; Tumor Cells, Cultured

Monoterpenes are found in the essential oils of many commonly consumed fruits and vegetables. These compounds have been shown to exert chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activities in mammary tumor models and represent a new class of breast cancer therapeutic agents. In this study, we investigated the effects of limonene and limonene-related monoterpenes, perillyl alcohol and perillic acid, on cell growth, cell cycle progression, and expression of cyclin D1 cell cycle-regulatory gene in T-47D, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. Our results revealed that limonene-related monoterpenes caused a dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation. Of the three monoterpenes tested, perillyl alcohol was the most potent and limonene was the least potent inhibitor of cell growth. The enantiomeric composition of limonene and perillyl alcohol did not interfere with their effect on cell growth. Sensitivity of breast cancer cell lines to monoterpenes was in the following order: T-47D > MCF-7 > MDA-MB-231. Growth inhibition induced by perillyl alcohol and perillic acid was associated with a fall in the proportion of cells in the S phase and an accumulation of cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Finally, we showed that the effects of limonene-related monoterpenes on cell proliferation and cell cycle progression were preceded by a decrease in cyclin D1 mRNA levels.

Topics: Antineoplastic Agents; Breast Neoplasms; Cell Cycle; Cell Division; Cyclin D1; Cyclohexenes; Disease Progression; Female; Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic; Humans; Limonene; Monoterpenes; Terpenes; Tumor Cells, Cultured