citrinin and deoxynivalenol

This study applied multi-mycotoxin liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection (LC-MS/MS) methods to determine the biomarkers of exposure in urine and serum samples from a dose-response study with pigs. The 24 studied pigs were divided into three groups: a control and two experimental ones (with different levels of feed contamination). They were exposed to feed prepared from cereals contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) for 14 days. After that, both experimental groups received the same feed as the control group for the next 14 days to determine the kinetics of the disappearance of mycotoxin biomarkers. Urine samples were collected daily in the morning and blood samples-eight-times during the experiment. The study reported herein was the first prolonged exposure experiment for multiple mycotoxins like OTA and CIT in pigs. The urinary and serum levels of all biomarkers correlated well with the respective toxin intake; thereby demonstrating that they are suitable biomarkers of exposure in pigs. Urine is a good candidate to monitor DON, ZEN, OTA, CIT exposure while serum may be used to monitor DON, OTA and CIT. Additionally, OTA has even been quantified in both matrices in the experimental groups two weeks after changing the contaminated feed back to the control, this result differed from those produced by the other mycotoxins which were only quantified during the first two weeks. Therefore both matrices are suitable candidates to monitor prolonged OTA exposure in pigs.

Topics: Animal Feed; Animals; Biomarkers; Citrinin; Female; Food Contamination; Ochratoxins; Sus scrofa; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone

Intestinal epithelial cells are the first targets of ingested mycotoxins, such as ochratoxin A, citrinin and deoxynivalenol. It has been reported that paracellular permeability regulated by tight junctions is modulated by several mycotoxins by reducing the expression of specific claudins and integral membrane proteins in cell-cell contacts, accompanied by increase in phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, including extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) 1/2, p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal protein kinase. Claudin-2 is expressed in the deep crypt cells, but not in the villus/surface cells in vivo. While Caco-2, T84 and IPEC-J2 cells, which are widely used intestinal epithelial cell lines to assess the influence of mycotoxins, do not express claudin-2, CMT93-II cells express claudin-2. We previously reported that inhibition of the ERK pathway reduced claudin-2 levels in cell-cell contacts in CMT93-II cells. In this study, we examined whether ochratoxin A, citrinin and deoxynivalenol affect claudin-2 expression and ERK1/2 phosphorylation in CMT93-II cells. We found that all mycotoxins reduced claudin-2 expression in cell-cell contacts, with reduction (by citrinin and deoxynivalenol) or no change (by ochratoxin A) in phosphorylated ERK1/2. All mycotoxins increased transepithelial electrical resistance, but did not affect flux of fluorescein. While ochratoxin A and citrinin are known to be nephrotoxic, only deoxynivalenol reduced claudin-2 expression in MDCK II cells derived from the renal tubule. These results suggest that claudin-2 expression is regulated not only by the ERK pathway, but also by other pathways in an organ-specific manner.

Topics: Animals; Aspergillus ochraceus; Butadienes; Caco-2 Cells; Cell Line; Citrinin; Claudin-2; Dogs; Enzyme Inhibitors; Epithelial Cells; Fusarium; Gene Expression; Gene Expression Regulation; Humans; Intestinal Mucosa; Madin Darby Canine Kidney Cells; Mice; Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases; Nitriles; Ochratoxins; Penicillium; Permeability; Phosphorylation; Rectum; Trichothecenes

A direct, fast and sensitive LC-MS/MS method was developed to measure biomarkers for mycotoxin exposure in human urine. In total, 32 biomarkers were quantitatively or semi-quantitatively measured in 32 urine samples of Belgian volunteers using two injections. All urine samples contained deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide, the major detoxification metabolite of deoxynivalenol, in the ng/mL range. Also deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide and de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol-glucuronide were present in, respectively, 90 and 25% of the samples, while deoxynivalenol was detected in 60% of the samples, in lower concentrations. Deoxynivalenol glucuronides were the major biomarkers for deoxynivalenol exposure. Ochratoxin A was detected in 70% of the samples in pg/mL. Citrinin and/or dihydrocitrinone were detected in 90% of the samples, also in concentrations of pg/mL. The presence of ochratoxin A and citrinin was confirmed by a second method using sample cleanup by immunoaffinity columns, followed by LC-MS/MS. Our data show that humans are much more exposed to citrinin than realized before and suggest further work on citrinin exposure in relation with ochratoxin A exposure, as both mycotoxins are nephrotoxic.

Topics: Adult; Belgium; Biomarkers; Chromatography, Liquid; Citrinin; Female; Glucuronides; Humans; Male; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Trichothecenes

Ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB) and citrinin (CIT) in commercial foods were simultaneously determined and confirmed with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). The samples examined were made up of cereal, fruit, coffee, and cacao products. The limits of quantification (S/N> or =10) of OTA, OTB and CIT were 0.1 microg/kg or less. Aflatoxins (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins were also surveyed. Of 157 samples examined, 44 were contaminated with OTA at levels of 0.11 to 4.0 microg/kg. At least 2 positive samples were labeled as domestics. In most positive samples, the OTA level was low, less than 1 microg/kg. The highest incidence of OTA was observed in cacao powder (10/12), followed by instant coffee (5/7), cocoa (5/8) and raisin (6/13). OTB was found in fruit and cacao products containing relatively high levels of OTA. Co-occurrence of OTA, CIT and DON was found in cereal products, and co-occurrence of OTA and AF was found in cacao products. Approximately 30% of naturally contaminated OTA in roasted coffee bean moved into the extract solution when brewed with paper filter.

Topics: Aflatoxins; Cacao; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Chromatography, Liquid; Citrinin; Coffee; Edible Grain; Food Analysis; Food Contamination; Fruit; Fumonisins; Ochratoxins; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Trichothecenes

One hundred and ninety seven maize samples representing different cultivars, collected from different agroclimatic regions of Karnataka (India) were analysed for moisture content, mould incidence, ergosterol and extent of mycotoxin contamination. Moisture content determination by the hot-air oven method revealed significantly high levels of moisture content (15-18%) in 34 (17%) samples, which exceeded the permissible limit for safe storage. Ergosterol quantification by HPLC revealed the presence of ergosterol in many samples collected from rural areas of Karnataka irrespective of the moisture content. Mould enumeration based on blotter and agar plating methods revealed the association of 24 diverse species of both field and storage moulds belonging to 14 genera. Mycotoxins analyses using monoclonal antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) revealed mycotoxin contamination in 69 (34.8%) samples. Maize samples with a high incidence of diverse species of moulds and alarmingly high levels of mycotoxins in many samples indicate the need for proper surveillance and monitoring exclusively for the prevention of moulds and mycotoxins in maize produce in Karnataka before it reaches the consumer.

Topics: Aflatoxin B1; Citrinin; Environmental Monitoring; Ergosterol; Fungi; India; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Seeds; T-2 Toxin; Trichothecenes; Water; Zea mays; Zearalenone

Ninety five samples of various Egyptian feedstuffs were investigated for the aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 means thin layer chromatography (TLC). Out of these samples 44.2% were positive (maize, rice crack, rice germ, rice germ cake, rice bran, wheat bran, cotton seed, cotton seed cake, peanut, and mixed feed for broilers, egg production, calf fattening and milk production). High percentage (90.5%) of the positive samples were contaminated with less than 100 ppb total aflatoxins. Peanut from "Ismailia" showed the highest contamination-mean of 400 ppb aflatoxin B1. The contamination relationship between kernels and shell of the same pods of the peanut was 1:7. The lowest contamination-mean was 5 ppb B1 in soya bean samples. All samples of horse bean and fish meal were negative. Aflatoxin B1 was present alone so frequently (in 76.2% of the positive samples). The relationship between the concentrations of aflatoxins B2:G1:B1 was 1:2.3:22.4. 51 different samples of foods and feeds from various Egyptian regions were collected and investigated for the nephrotoxic mycotoxin ochratoxin A means TLC. Twelve samples (23.5%) from them were designated as positive samples. The positive samples belonged to white maize, wheat, wheat bran, beans, rice germ, rice germ cake, broilers feed, egg production feed, and milk production feed; whereas the yellow maize (hybrid), soya beans, wheat soya meal, rice crack, cotton seed, cotton seed cake, and fish meal samples were negative. The contamination range was from 4 ppb to 577 ppb with an average of 58.2 +/- 22.9 ppb. Half of the positive samples was contaminated with 10-100 ppb whereas 41.7% from the positive samples had less than 10 ppb and 8.3% only had more than 100 ppb. Citrinin is existing in Egyptian food and feedstuffs. Out of 52 different samples--from various Egyptian regions-15.4% were positive. These were rice bran, rice germ, maize (white), wheat bran, cotton seed cake and fish meal. The highest contamination was in fish meal (40-70 ppb) whereas the lowest was in wheat bran (3 ppb). Mean of the contamination level was 25.9 +/- 3.4 ppb with a range of 3-70 ppb. For the first time in the Egyptian foods and feeds will be informed about the presence of the mycotoxin zearalenone with a high concentration. From several Egyptian places, 64 samples were collected (4 samples for each food or feed stuff).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Topics: Aflatoxins; Animal Feed; Animals; Chromatography, Thin Layer; Citrinin; Egypt; Food Contamination; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Trichothecenes; Zearalenone

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi. When one mycotoxin is detected, one should suspect that others also are present in a contaminated feed ingredient or finished feeds. The toxicity and clinical signs of observed in animals when more than one mycotoxin is present in feed are complex and diverse. Some mycotoxins, such as the combination of aflatoxin with either ochratoxin A or T-2 toxin, interact to produce synergistic toxicity in broiler chicks. The effects observed during multiple mycotoxin exposure can differ greatly from the effects observed in animals exposed to a single mycotoxin. For example, fatty livers in poultry are used for presumptive diagnostic identification of aflatoxicosis. However, simultaneous presence of ochratoxin A prevents fatty livers. Of the mycotoxin combinations that have been investigated in poultry and swine, the aflatoxin + ochratoxin A and aflatoxin + T-2 toxin interactions appear to be the most toxic.

Topics: Aflatoxins; Animals; Body Weight; Chickens; Citrinin; Drug Interactions; Mycotoxins; Ochratoxins; Swine; T-2 Toxin; Trichothecenes