chlorophyll-a and microcystin

Growth of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in Lake Okeechobee (Florida, USA) and surrounding waters has resulted in adverse health impacts for humans and endangered species, as well as significant economic losses. As these issues worsen, there is growing pressure for efficacious solutions to rapidly mitigate harmful algal blooms (HABs) and protect critical freshwater resources. Applications of USEPA-registered algaecides as management tactics meet many decision-making criteria often required by water resource managers (e.g., effective, scalable, selective), but have not yet been evaluated on a large scale within the Lake Okeechobee waterway. This study was conducted to bolster the peer-reviewed database for available management tactics against microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in waters of this region. Laboratory-scale experiments can be conducted first to minimize uncertainty at larger scales and improve confidence in decision-making. In this study, samples containing microcystin-producing cyanobacteria collected from Lake Okeechobee were exposed to several USEPA-registered algaecides in laboratory toxicity experiments. Responses of target cyanobacteria were measured 3 days after treatment (DAT) in terms of cell density, chlorophyll-a concentrations, and phycocyanin concentrations. Based on responses of the cyanobacteria, minimum effective exposure concentrations were identified for each algaecide. Microcystin release (i.e. proportion of total microcystins in the aqueous phase) was measured and compared 1 DAT among effective exposures. Total microcystin concentrations were measured in effective treatments at 1, 4, and 9 DAT to discern potential for microcystin persistence following exposures to the effective formulations and exposure concentrations. Overall, several formulations including GreenClean Liquid® 5.0, GreenClean Liquid® 5.0 combined with Hydrothol® 191, and the copper-based algaecides evaluated (Algimycin® PWF, Argos, Captain® XTR, Cutrine® Ultra, and SeClear®) achieved significant and similar effects on target cyanobacteria. The chelated copper-based formulations (Algimycin® PWF, Argos, Captain® XTR, and Cutrine® Ultra) resulted in relatively less microcystin release 1 DAT and lesser total microcystin concentrations 4 DAT. At 9 DAT, total microcystin concentrations were significantly lower than in untreated controls in all treatments evaluated. These results provide the necessary comparative performance data for preliminary decision-maki

Topics: Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Copper; Copper Sulfate; Cyanobacteria; Florida; Harmful Algal Bloom; Herbicides; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Water

Topics: Antibiosis; Bacillus licheniformis; Biological Control Agents; Chlorophyll; Eutrophication; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidative Stress; Transcription, Genetic

As aquatic ecosystems become increasingly affected by hydrologic alterations, drought and sea level rise a need exists to better understand the biological effects of elevated salinity on toxigenic cyanobacteria such as Microcystis aeruginosa. This study investigated the impacts of oligohaline/low mesohaline conditions and exposure time on selected physiological and biochemical responses in M. aeruginosa including cell viability, oxidative stress, antioxidant responses, in addition to microcystin synthesis and release into the surrounding environment. M. aeruginosa was able to grow in most test salinity treatments (1.4-10 ppt), as supported by cell abundance data and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentrations. Physiological data showed that after certain salinity thresholds (∼7ppt) were surpassed, salt stress had cascading effects, such as increased ROS production and lipid peroxidation, potentiating the decline in cellular viability. Furthermore, elevated salinity induced oxidative stress which was concomitant with a decrease in cell abundance, chl-a concentration and photochemical efficiency in the 7-10 ppt treatments. M. aeruginosa did not synthesize microcystins (MCs) in response to increased saline conditions, and mcy-D expression was not correlated with either salinity treatment or extracellular MC concentrations, indicating that salinity stress could inhibit toxin production and that released toxins were likely synthesized prior to exposure. Additionally, extracellular MC concentrations were not correlated with decreased cellular integrity, as evidenced by SYTOX analyses, suggesting that toxins may be released through mechanisms other than cellular lysis. Results from this study support that M. aeruginosa can survive with limited negative impacts to cellular structure and function up to a certain threshold between 7-10 ppt. However, after these thresholds are surpassed, there is radical decline in cell health and viability leading to toxin release. This work underscores the importance of understanding the balance between ROS production and antioxidant capacities when assessing the fate of M. aeruginosa under mesohaline conditions.

Topics: Antioxidants; Cell Death; Chlorophyll; Lipid Peroxidation; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidative Stress; Salinity

Forty-one livestock drinking water ponds in Alabama beef cattle pastures during were surveyed during the late summer to generally understand water quality patterns in these important water resources. Since livestock drinking water ponds are prone to excess nutrients that typically lead to eutrophication, which can promote blooms of toxigenic phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria, we also assessed the threat of exposure to the hepatotoxin, microcystin. Eighty percent of the ponds studied contained measurable microcystin, while three of these ponds had concentrations above human drinking water thresholds set by the US Environmental Protection Agency (i.e., 0.3 μg/L). Water quality patterns in the livestock drinking water ponds contrasted sharply with patterns typically observed for temperate freshwater lakes and reservoirs. Namely, we found several non-linear relationships between phytoplankton abundance (measured as chlorophyll) and nutrients or total suspended solids. Livestock had direct access to all the study ponds. Consequently, the proportion of inorganic suspended solids (e.g., sediment) increased with higher concentrations of total suspended solids, which underlies these patterns. Unimodal relationships were also observed between microcystin and phytoplankton abundance or nutrients. Euglenoids were abundant in the four ponds with chlorophyll concentrations > 250 μg/L (and dominated three of these ponds), which could explain why ponds with high chlorophyll concentrations would have low microcystin concentrations. Based on observations made during sampling events and available water quality data, livestock-mediated bioturbation is causing elevated total suspended solids that lead to reduced phytoplankton abundance and microcystin despite high concentrations of nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen. Thus, livestock could be used to manage algal blooms, including toxic secondary metabolites, in their drinking water ponds by allowing them to walk in the ponds to increase turbidity.

Topics: Animal Husbandry; Animals; Cattle; Chlorophyll; Cyanobacteria; Drinking Water; Environmental Monitoring; Eutrophication; Fresh Water; Humans; Microcystins; Nitrogen; Phosphorus; Phytoplankton; Ponds; Seasons; Water Pollution; Water Quality

Microcystin (MCY)-producing harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cHABs) are an annual occurrence in Lake Erie, and buoys equipped with water quality sondes have been deployed to help researchers and resource managers track cHABs. The objective of this study was to determine how well water quality sondes attached to buoys measure total algae and cyanobacterial biomass and water turbidity. Water samples were collected next to two data buoys in western Lake Erie (near Gibraltar Island and in the Sandusky subbasin) throughout summers 2015, 2016, and 2017 to determine correlations between buoy sonde data and water sample data. MCY and nutrient concentrations were also measured. Significant (P < 0.001) linear relationships (R

Topics: Biomass; Chlorophyll; Cyanobacteria; Environmental Monitoring; Great Lakes Region; Harmful Algal Bloom; Lakes; Microcystins; Nephelometry and Turbidimetry; Nutrients; Water Quality

Blooms of harmful cyanobacteria have been observed in various water bodies across the world and some of them can produce intracellular toxins, such as microcystins (MCs), which negatively impact aquatic organisms and human health. Iron participates significantly in cyanobacterial photosynthesis and is proposed to be linked to MC production. Here, the cyanobacteria

Topics: Chlorophyll; Cyanobacteria; Iron; Marine Toxins; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidation-Reduction; Photosynthesis

Cyanobacterial blooms are becoming increasingly common in aquatic environments around the world, mainly due to eutrophication and climate change. Cyanotoxin-producing strains (e.g., microcystins (MC) producers) may be present in these blooms, affecting the growth of other aquatic organisms, such as aquatic macrophytes. In this study, we evaluated the morphometric and physiological responses of the aquatic macrophyte Egeria densa to the exposure to a toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa (MCs producer) and a non-toxic Microcystis panniformis (non-MC producer). The effects of Microcystis strains on E. densa growth and biomass were verified for five weeks (Experiment 1) and physiological responses were evaluated for 14days (Experiment 2). Prolonged exposure of E. densa to the MC producing strain reduced growth, accompanied by the inhibition of shoot and root emission. Both Microcystis strains caused a decrease in the content of photosynthetic pigments, like total chlorophyll and chlorophyll a and b, accompanied by an increase of carotenoids. At the beginning of the MC-producing strain exposure, E. densa showed an increase in the activity of the anti-oxidative enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), accompanied by an increase in the levels of malondialdehyde, indicating lipid peroxidation. During the 14th day of exposure, the activity of antioxidant enzymes remained similar to the control, suggesting that E. densa has an efficient anti-oxidative system to control the reactive oxygen species produced in response to the stress caused by microcystins. However, when prolonged exposure occurred, possible damage to proteins may have affected the growth and development of E. densa. No changes were observed in the enzymatic activity of the plants exposed to the non-MC producing strain, suggesting that this cyanobacterial strain do not cause significant damage to the development of E. densa. These results are important for understanding the anti-oxidative defense mechanisms of aquatic macrophytes when coexisting with an MC producing strain.

Topics: Antioxidants; Ascorbate Peroxidases; Biomass; Catalase; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Eutrophication; Lipid Peroxidation; Magnoliopsida; Malondialdehyde; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidative Stress; Reactive Oxygen Species; Superoxide Dismutase

Blooms of harmful cyanobacteria that synthesize cyanotoxins are increasing worldwide. Agronomic plants can uptake these cyanotoxins and given that plants are ultimately ingested by humans, this represents a public health problem. In this research, parsley and coriander grown in soil and watered through 7 days with crude extracts containing microcystins (MCs) or cylindrospermopsin (CYN) in 0.1-1 μg mL

Topics: Alkaloids; Antioxidants; Bacterial Toxins; Chlorophyll; Coriandrum; Cyanobacteria; Cyanobacteria Toxins; Glutathione Peroxidase; Glutathione Reductase; Glutathione Transferase; Microcystins; Petroselinum; Uracil

Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (FPE) was studied for possible ecotoxicity on two representative toxigenic cyanobacteria including Microcystis aeruginosa and Microcystis viridis. Growth curves, chlorophyll a content, protein content, microcystin levels, oxidative stress, and apoptosis rates were measured for the two cyanobacteria after exposure to different concentrations of FPE. Results showed that the changes in chlorophyll a content and protein content were consistent with cell density, and M. viridis was more sensitive than M. aeruginosa to FPE. The results of oxidative stress indicated that FPE induced the generation of malondialdehyde (MDA) and enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) in these two cyanobacteria. To further explore the toxicity of FPE, apoptosis rates and toxin levels were measured for the two cyanobacteria. Different degrees of apoptosis rates were observed in the two cyanobacteria, and the apoptosis rates increased with the increase concentration of FPE. The intracellular and extracellular MC-LR were both affect by FPE. The presence of FPE in aquatic ecosystem may stimulate the synthesis and release of MC-LR, which may cause serious water pollution and pose threats to human health. These results may be useful for the ecotoxicity assessment of FPE and guiding the rational use of pesticides in agriculture.

Topics: Antioxidants; Apoptosis; Catalase; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Environmental Pollutants; Herbicides; Malondialdehyde; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxazoles; Oxidative Stress; Peroxidases; Propionates; Superoxide Dismutase; Toxins, Biological

Stormwater wet detention ponds hold a permanent pool of water and offer many beneficial uses including flood mitigation, pollution prevention, downstream erosion control, increased aesthetics, and recreational uses. Although the removal of nutrients is generally low for stormwater wet detention ponds in urban areas, floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) can be installed to offer an innovative solution toward naturally removing excess nutrients and aiding in stormwater management. To improve the stormwater reuse potential, this study assessed nutrient, microcystin, and chlorophyll-a interactions in three Florida stormwater wet detention ponds with recently implemented FTWs. Both episodic (storm events) and routine (non-storm events) sampling campaigns were carried out at the three ponds located in Ruskin, Gainesville, and Orlando. The results showed a salient negative correlation between total phosphorus and microcystin concentrations for both storm and non-storm events across all three ponds. The dominant nutrient species in correlation seemed to be total phosphorus, which correlated positively with chlorophyll-a concentrations at all ponds and sampling conditions, with the exception of Orlando non-storm events. These results showed a correlation conditional to the candidate pond and sampling conditions for microcystin and chlorophyll-a concentrations.

Topics: Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Environmental Monitoring; Florida; Magnoliopsida; Microcystins; Phosphorus; Ponds; Water Pollutants, Chemical; Wetlands

Different phytoplankton strains have been shown to possess varying sensitivities towards macrophyte allelochemicals, yet the reasons for this are largely unknown. To test whether microcystin (MC) is responsible for strain-specific sensitivities of Microcystis aeruginosa to macrophyte allelochemicals, we compared the sensitivity of 12 MC- and non-MC-producing M. aeruginosa strains, including an MC-deficient mutant and its wild type, to the polyphenolic allelochemical tannic acid (TA). Non-MC-producing strains showed a significantly higher sensitivity to TA than MC-producing strains, both in Chlorophyll a concentrations and quantum yields of photosystem II. In contrast, an MC-deficient mutant displayed a higher fitness against TA compared to its wild type. These results suggest that the resistance of M. aeruginosa to polyphenolic allelochemicals is not primarily related to MCs per se, but to other yet unknown protective mechanisms related to MCs.

Topics: Bacterial Proteins; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Microbial Sensitivity Tests; Microcystins; Microcystis; Tannins

Cyanobacterial/Harmful Algal Blooms are a major issue for lakes and reservoirs throughout the U.S.A. An effective destructive technology could be useful to protect sensitive areas, such as areas near water intakes. The study presented in this article explored the use of a reactor called the KRIA Water Treatment System. The reactor focuses on the injection of superoxide (O2 (-)), which is generated electrochemically from the atmosphere, into the water body. In addition, the injection process generates a significant amount of cavitation. The treatment process was tested in 190-L reactors spiked with water from cyanobacterial contaminated lakes. The treatment was very effective at destroying the predominant species of cyanobacteria, Microcystis aeruginosa, organic matter, and decreasing chlorophyll concentration. Microcystin toxin concentrations were also reduced. Data suggest that cavitation alone was an effective treatment, but the addition of superoxide improved performance, particularly regarding removal of cyanobacteria and reduction of microcystin concentration.

Topics: Chlorophyll; Cyanobacteria; Harmful Algal Bloom; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Superoxides; Water Purification

Toxic cyanobacterial blooms have occurred in various water bodies during recent decades and made serious health hazards to plants, animals and humans. Iron is an important micronutrient for algal growth and recently, the concentration of which has increased remarkably in freshwaters. In this paper, the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa FACHB-905 was cultivated under non-iron (0μM), iron-limited (10μM) and iron-replete (100μM) conditions to investigate the effects of iron on growth, antioxidant enzyme activity, EPS and microcystin production. The results showed that algal cell density and chlorophyll-a content were maximal at the highest iron concentration. Antioxidant enzymes activity increased notably under all three conditions in the early stage of experiment, of which the SOD activity recovered soon from oxidative stress in 10μM group. The productions of some protein-like substances and humic acid-like substances of bound EPS were inhibited in iron-containing groups in the early stage of experiment while promoted after the adaptation period of Microcystis aeruginosa. Iron addition is a factor affecting the formation of cyanobacterial blooms through its impact on the content of LB-EPS and the composition of TB-EPS. The intracellular MC-LR concentration and the productivity potential of MC-LR were the lowest in 0μM group and highest in 10μM group. No obvious extracellular release of MC-LR was observed during the cultivation time. Therefore, iron addition can promote the physiological activities of M. aeruginosa, but a greater harm could be brought into environment under iron-limited (10μM) condition than under iron-replete (100μM) condition.

Topics: Antioxidants; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Fresh Water; Humic Substances; Iron; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidation-Reduction; Polymers; Trace Elements

Effects of laser irradiation on photosystem II (PS II) photochemical efficiencies, growth, and other physiological responses of Microcystis aeruginosa were investigated in this study. Results indicate that laser irradiation (wavelengths 405, 450, 532, and 650 nm) could effectively inhibit maximal PS II quantum yield (Fv/Fm) and maximal electron transport rates (ETR

Topics: Bacterial Proteins; Carotenoids; Chlorophyll; Electron Transport; Eutrophication; Microcystins; Microcystis; Photosynthesis; Photosystem II Protein Complex; Superoxide Dismutase

The exogenous organic pollutant linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) pollution and Microcystis bloom are two common phenomena in eutrophic lakes, but the effects of LAS alone on Microcystis remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of LAS on the growth, photochemical efficiency, and microcystin production of Microcystis aeruginosa in the laboratory. Results showed that low LAS (≤10 mg/L) concentrations improved the growth of M. aeruginosa (12 days of exposure). High LAS (20 mg/L) concentrations inhibited the growth of M. aeruginosa on the first 8 days of exposure; afterward, growth progressed. After 12 days of exposure, the concentrations of chlorophyll a in algal cells were not significantly affected by any of LAS concentrations (0.05 to 20 mg/L) in the present study; by contrast, carotenoid and protein concentrations were significantly inhibited when LAS concentrations reached as high as 20 mg/L. After 6 and 12 days of exposure, low LAS (≤10 mg/L) concentrations enhanced the maximal photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) and the maximal electron transport rate (ETRmax) of M. aeruginosa. Furthermore, LAS increased the microcystin production of M. aeruginosa. Extracellular and intracellular microcystin contents were significantly increased after M. aeruginosa was exposed to high LAS concentrations. Our results indicated that LAS in eutrophic lakes may increase the risk of Microcystis bloom and microcystin production.

Topics: Alkanesulfonic Acids; Analysis of Variance; Carotenoids; China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Electron Transport; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Eutrophication; Fluorescence; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Proteins; Time Factors

Microcystins (MCs) produced by cyanobacteria pose a serious threat to public health. Intelligence on MCs distributions in freshwater is therefore critical for environmental agencies, water authorities, and public health organizations. We developed and validated an empirical model to quantify MCs in Lake Taihu during cyanobacterial bloom periods using the atmospherically Rayleigh-corrected moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS-Aqua) (Rrc) products and in situ data by means of chlorophyll a concentrations (Chla). First, robust relationships were constructed between MCs and Chla (r = 0.91; p < 0.001; t-test) and between Chla and a spectral index derived from Rrc (r = -0.86; p < 0.05; t-test). Then, a regional algorithm to analyze MCs in Lake Taihu was constructed by combining the two relationships. The model was validated and then applied to an 11-year series of MODIS-Aqua data to investigate the spatial and temporal distributions of MCs. MCs in the lake were markedly variable both spatially and temporally. Cyanobacterial bloom scums, temperature, wind, and light conditions probably affected the temporal and spatial distribution of MCs in Lake Taihu. The findings demonstrate that remote sensing reconnaissance in conjunction with in situ monitoring can greatly aid MCs assessment in freshwater.

Topics: Atmosphere; China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Cyanobacteria; Harmful Algal Bloom; Lakes; Longitudinal Studies; Microcystins; Reproducibility of Results; Satellite Imagery; Spatio-Temporal Analysis; Temperature; Wind

Microcystis (M.) aeruginosa, one of the most common bloom-forming cyanobacteria, occurs worldwide. The Qingcaosha (QCS) Reservoir is undergoing eutrophication and faces the problem of saltwater intrusion. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sudden salinity changes on physiological parameters and related gene transcription in M. aeruginosa under controlled laboratory conditions. The results showed that sodium chloride (50, 200 and 500 mg L(-1) NaCl) inhibited the algal growth and decreased pigment concentrations (chlorophyll a, carotenoid and phycocyanin). Sodium chloride increased both the intracellular and extracellular microcystin contents and elevated the mcyD transcript level in M. aeruginosa. It also increased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content and caused cytomembrane damage. This damage caused the release of intracellular toxins into the culture medium. In addition, NaCl decreased the maximum electron transport rate, increased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and changed the cellular redox status. Consequently, NaCl inhibited the expression of cpcB, psbA and rbcL. Furthermore, NaCl increased the activities of superoxide dismutases (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), and total glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The transcript levels of sod and reduced glutathione (gsh) were also increased after exposure to NaCl. Our results indicate that a sudden increase in salinity increases the production and excretion of microcystin, changes the cellular redox status, enhances the activities of antioxidant enzymes, inhibits photosynthesis, and affects transcript levels of related genes in M. aeruginosa.

Topics: Carotenoids; Catalase; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Electron Transport; Gene Expression; Glutathione; Glutathione Peroxidase; Glutathione Reductase; Malondialdehyde; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidation-Reduction; Photosynthesis; Phycocyanin; Reactive Oxygen Species; Salinity; Sodium Chloride; Superoxide Dismutase

Microcystins (MCs) are toxic heptapeptides produced by cyanobacteria during blooms that are noxious to diverse organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates. Specifically in daphnids, they cause reduced growth, a low reproductive rate, and, in extreme cases, death; however, different infochemicals released by cladocerans stimulate MCs synthesis. Ecological cyanobacteria-daphnids interactions are complex and not clear yet. In this study, we evaluated the effects of infochemicals released by Daphnia magna neonates and adults fed with different concentrations of Microcystis aeruginosa on population growth of strains Ch10 and UTEX LB2385 of M. aeruginosa, mcyA gene expression in real time qPCR, and the intracellular concentration of MCs. In addition, we assessed the relation between the cellular diameter and the intracellular concentration of MCs in both strains. Chlorophyll content per cell was affected by the presence of infochemicals from D. magna neonates and adults. mcyA gene was significantly overexpressed in the early stages of population growth (5 days) in all treatments with strain UTEX LB2385, whereas overexpression was observed in strain Ch10 at the end stage of the exponential and stationary phases (10 and 15 days). Intracellular concentration of MCs varied with the tested factor. Results suggest that the increase in mcyA gene expression and in MCs production could be defense mechanisms against the consumption by D. magna. Results also demonstrate the physiological plasticity among Microcystis strains, which could explain the permanence and dominance of this genus in toxic blooms.

Topics: Animals; Bacterial Proteins; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Computational Biology; Daphnia; DNA, Bacterial; Gene Expression; Microcystins; Microcystis

The most significant modulators of the cyanotoxins microcystin and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine in laboratory cyanobacterial cultures are the concentration of growth-medium combined nitrogen and nitrogen uptake rate. The lack of field studies that support these observations led us to investigate the cellular content of these cyanotoxins in cyanobacterial bloom material isolated from a freshwater impoundment and to compare these to the combined nitrogen availability. We established that these toxins typically occur in an inverse relationship in nature and that their presence is mainly dependent on the environmental combined nitrogen concentration, with cellular microcystin present at exogenous combined nitrogen concentrations of 29 μM and higher and cellular BMAA correlating negatively with exogenous nitrogen at concentrations below 40 μM. Furthermore, opposing nutrient and light gradients that form in dense cyanobacterial blooms may result in both microcystin and BMAA being present at a single sampling site.

Topics: Amino Acids, Diamino; Ammonia; Carcinogens; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Cyanobacteria Toxins; Environment; Fresh Water; Microcystins; Microcystis; Nitrates; Nitrites; Nitrogen

The aim of this study was to analyze the temporal distribution of phytoplanktonic cyanobacteria in a site located in the freshwater tidal zone near the extraction point for the drinking water supply. Samples were taken considering three timescales as follows: hours, days, and weeks, during the period of highest development of cyanobacteria. The phytoplankton density, microcystin concentration (LR, RR, YR), and chlorophyll-a were related to meteorological variables (wind and temperature), tidal high, and physical-chemical variables (nutrients, pH, conductivity, light penetration). The results obtained in this study showed that the variables that primarily modulate the temporal distribution of cyanobacteria were temperature, pH, light penetration, conductivity, and nutrients (particularly NO3 (-) and NH4 (+)), while the winds and tide had a secondary effect, only evidenced at an hourly scale. Therefore, this timescale would be the most suitable for monitoring cyanobacterial populations, when the amount of cyanobacterial cells exceeds the alert I level proposed by the World Health Organization. This recommendation is particularly important for the water intake zones in Río de la Plata, which are vulnerable to the damage generated by cyanobacteria on the water quality.

Topics: Argentina; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Cyanobacteria; Environmental Monitoring; Estuaries; Microcystins; Phytoplankton; Rivers; Water Microbiology; Water Quality; Water Supply

The increasing occurrence of Microcystis blooms is of great concern to public health and ecosystem due to the potential hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs) produced by these colonial cyanobacteria. In order to interpret the relationships between variations of Microcystis morphospecies and extracellular MC concentrations, the seasonal dynamics of phytoplankton community composition, MC concentrations, and environmental parameters were monitored monthly from August, 2009 to July, 2010. The results indicated that Microcystis dominated total phytoplankton abundance from May to December (96%-99% of total biovolume), with toxic Microcystis viridis and non-toxic Microcystis wesenbergii dominating after July (constituting 65%-95% of the Microcystis population), followed by M. viridis as the sole dominant species from November to January (49%-93%). Correlation analysis revealed that water temperature and nutrient were the most important variables accounting for the occurrence of M. wesenbergii, while the dominance of M. viridis was related with nitrite and nitrate. The relatively low content of MCs was explained by the association with a large proportion of M. viridis and M. wesenbergii, small colony size of Microcystis populations, and low water temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen. The extracellular MC (mean of 0.5±0.2μg/L) of water samples analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) demonstrated the low concentrations of MC in Dianchi Lake which implied the low potential risk for human health in the basin. The survey provides the first whole lake study of the occurrence and seasonal variability of Microcystis population and extracellular MCs that are of particular interest for water quality monitoring and management.

Topics: China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Harmful Algal Bloom; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Phytoplankton; Seasons

Water samples were collected in Lake Taihu from June to October in 2013 in order to investigate the threshold of chlorophyll a (Chl-a). The concentrations of three microcystins isomers (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR) were detected by means of solid phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The correlations between various MCs and eutrophication factors, for instance of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), chlorophyll a, permanganate index etc were analyzed. The threshold of Chl-a was studied based on the relationships between MC-LR, MCs and Chl-a. The results showed that Lake Taihu was severely polluted by MCs and its spatial distribution could be described as follows: the concentration in Meiliang Bay was the highest, followed by Gonghu Bay and Western Lake, and Lake Center; the least polluted areas were in Lake Xuhu and Southern Lake. The concentration of MC-LR was the highest among the 3 MCs. The correlation analysis indicated that MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR and MCs had very positive correlation with permanganate index, TN, TP and Chl-a (P < 0.01). The threshold value of Chl-a was 12.26 mg x m(-3) according to the standard thresholds of MC-LR and MCs in drinking water. The threshold value of Chl-a in Lake Taihu was very close to the standard in the State of North Carolina, which demonstrated that the threshold value provided in this study was reasonable.

Topics: China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Drinking Water; Environmental Monitoring; Eutrophication; Lakes; Microcystins; Nitrogen; Phosphorus

The studies of cyanobacterial blooms resulting from eutrophication or climate change and investigation of changes in the cyanobacterial community in freshwater environments are critical for the management of drinking water. Therefore, we investigated the cyanobacterial communities at 6 sites along the Nakdong River in South Korea from May 2012 to October 2012 by using high-throughput sequencing techniques and studied their relationship with various geochemical factors at sampling sites. Diverse genera (total of 175 genera) were detected within the cyanobacteria, and changes in their compositions were analyzed. The genus Prochlorococcus predominated in the May samples, especially in those obtained from the upstream part of the river, whereas the relative abundance of Microcystis and Anabaena increased with increase in water temperature. The relationship between the cyanobacterial community and environmental factors was analyzed by canonical correlation analysis, and the correlation between harmful cyanobacteria and chemical factors was analyzed by nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination. Various environmental factors such as dissolved oxygen, pH, electric conductivity, temperature were found to affect the cyanobacterial communities in the river. The results of this study could help in the management of freshwater environments and in maintenance of drinking water quality.

Topics: Anabaena; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Cyanobacteria; Electric Conductivity; Environmental Monitoring; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; Microcystins; Microcystis; Republic of Korea; Rivers; RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; Water Microbiology

Cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophied water body are generally composed of various genotypes with or without microcystin-producing genes (mcy gene cluster). Thus there is a need for quantification of potent toxin producing strains. The present study aimed at identifying microcystin variants and its producer strains in Durgakund pond, Varanasi, India, based on quantification of cpcBA-IGS and mcyA (condensation domain) genes using real-time PCR and LC-MS. Increase in microcystin concentrations was correlated with increase in mcyA copy number and the level of pigments (chlorophyll a, phycocyanin and carotenoids). Also, selected environmental factors (water temperature, light irradiance, rainfall, pH, N and P) and the concentration of microcystin variants (MC-LR, -RR and -YR) were also assessed in samples during May 2010 to April 2011 to establish the possible correlation among these parameters. Nutrients favored cyanobacterial bloom but it could not be correlated with the levels of microcystin variants and seemed to be geographically specific. Microcystis sp. dominant in the pond comprised potentially toxigenic cells. The ratio of potentially toxigenic Microcystis sp. to that of total Microcystis sp. ranged from 0% to 14%. Such studies paved the way to identify and quantify the most potent microcystin producer in the tropical aquatic body.

Topics: Carotenoids; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Chromatography, Liquid; Electrophoresis, Agar Gel; Eutrophication; Gene Dosage; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; India; Light; Limit of Detection; Mass Spectrometry; Microcystins; Microcystis; Nitrogen; Phosphorus; Phycocyanin; Ponds; Rain; Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; Reference Standards; Reproducibility of Results; Seasons; Temperature; Toxicity Tests

Chlorophyll-a concentration has been used as an indicator to estimate microcystin levels in water bodies. This study examined the microcystin to chlorophyll-a ratio in a fishpond in Japan. The ratio varied spatially and temporally during the six-month field survey, which is consistent with reports by other researchers. We investigated the causes of the variability of the ratio by quantifying microcystin synthetase (mcy) A gene with real-time PCR, so as to observe the growth of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria and Microcystis strains in natural cyanobacterial blooms. The application of real-time PCR enabled corroboration of the relationship between the toxigenicity and the toxicity of the blooms. The microcystin to chlorophyll-a ratio was influenced by the combined effects of the durability of the toxic bloom, and the quantity of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria carrying the mcy A gene, especially toxic Microcystis strains. Cyanobacterial blooms produced more microcystin when high concentrations of microcystin-producing Microcystis aggregated in a stationary state with low growth rates. The variable toxicity of blooms needs to be reflected in accurate and efficient alert systems for toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins.

Topics: Bacterial Proteins; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Cyanobacteria; Environmental Monitoring; Eutrophication; Fresh Water; Japan; Microcystins; Peptide Synthases; Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; Water Pollutants, Chemical

Blooms of the toxin-producing cyanobacterium, Microcystis spp., are an increasingly prevalent water quality problem and health hazard worldwide. China's third largest lake, Lake Taihu, has been experiencing progressively more severe Microcystis blooms over the past three decades. In 2009 and 2010, individual Microcystis colonies, consisting of four different morphospecies, were isolated and genotyped using a whole-cell multiplex PCR assay. The 16S-23S rDNA-ITS sequences were aligned based on Bayesian inference and indicated that one morphospecies was genetically unique (Microcystis wesenbergii) and three were indistinguishable (Microcystis aeruginosa, Microcystis flos-aquae, and Microcystis ichthyoblabe). Microcystin (mcyB) genes were detected intermittently in two of the morphospecies while the other two morphospecies lacked the mcyB gene in all samples. Water temperature was found to influence bloom formation and morphotype prevalence, and chlorophyll a and temperature were positively and significantly correlated with microcystin concentration. Cooler water temperatures promoted toxigenic strains of Microcystis. Wind appeared to influence the distribution of morphotypes across the lake, with M. aeruginosa and M. ichthyoblabe being more susceptible to wind stress than M. wesenbergii and M. flos-aquae. The results of this study indicated that the blooms were composed of a variety of Microcystis morphospecies, with more genotypes observed than can be attributed to individual morphotypes. We conclude that morphology is not a reliable indicator of toxigenicity in Lake Taihu, and caution should be exercised when the M. aeruginosa morphotype is present because it is capable of producing MC-LR, the most toxic microcystin isoform.

Topics: China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; DNA, Bacterial; DNA, Ribosomal Spacer; Fresh Water; Harmful Algal Bloom; Lakes; Microcystins; Microcystis; Phylogeny; RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; RNA, Ribosomal, 23S; Seasons; Sequence Analysis, DNA; Temperature; Wind

Cyanotoxins have been largely studied in planktonic and benthic cyanobacteria, but microcystin (MCYST) production in epiphytic cyanobacteria has not been reported yet. The present study reports for the first time the MCYST production in epiphytic cyanobacteria on submerged macrophytes. During this study, four common submerged macrophytes in eutrophic pond in Saudi Arabia were surveyed for the presence of toxic epiphytic cyanobacteria. The results showed that chlorophyll-a and total biovolume of epiphytic cyanobacteria differed significantly among submerged plants with highest values obtained in Stratiotes aloides and lowest in Elodea canadensis. Epiphytic materials collected from Ceratophyllum demersum and S. aloides had higher species diversities than materials collected from E. canadensis and Myriophyllum verticillatum. The cyanobacteria, Merismopedia tenuissima and Leptolyngbya boryana were recorded with a high abundance in epiphytic materials collected from all submerged macrohpytes. Based on Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), these two species were found to produce MCYSTs (MCYSTs) with concentrations of 1438 and 630 microg g(-1) dry weight, respectively. HPLC analysis of the methanolic extracts of the two species showed that M. tenuissima extract contained MCYST-RR and -LR/demethyl LR plus 3 minor unidentified MCYSTs, while L. boryana extract contained MCYST-YR, -LR/demethyl LR, and 2 minor unidentified MCYSTs. This study suggests that epiphytic species should be considered during monitoring of toxic cyanobacteria in water sources.

Topics: Animals; Artemia; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Cyanobacteria; Electric Conductivity; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Fresh Water; Microcystins; Plants; Saudi Arabia; Species Specificity

In recent years, chlorophyll fluorescence analysis has become one of the most powerful and widely used techniques available to plant ecophysiologists. In this work, the chlorophyll fluorescence is used in order to evaluate the biotic stress induced by exposure to cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins). Experiments were carried on the aquatic plant Lemna gibba exposed to various concentrations of a microcystins (0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, 0.15, 0.22 and 0.3mug equivalent MC-LR.mL(-1)) during 5h. The reversibility of the stress changes was also studied following 24h of treatment. The efficiency and the utility of this biophysical technique were compared to biochemical analysis priory used to evaluate the plant stress induced by such contamination. The results showed that there is a concentration-dependent effect on the measured in vivo chlorophyll fluorescence with significant differences between the control and all concentrations except for 0.01mug equivalent MC-LR.mL(-1). The reversibility tested showed also that after avoiding the contact with the microcystins, the chlorophyll fluorescence measurements were not significantly different from the control. The results showed that if the contact with the microcystins is short and not repeated plants may not suffer from a significant stress. We concluded that this simple and rapid technique based on the variable fluorescence, could be recommended and applied to test the plant stress caused by cyanobacterial toxins.

Topics: Araceae; Biological Assay; Chlorophyll; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Fluorescence; Microcystins

Both arsenic pollution and eutrophication are prominent environmental issues when considering the problem of global water pollution. It is important to reveal the effects of arsenic species on cyanobacterial growth and toxin yields to assess ecological risk of arsenic pollution or at least understand naturally occurring blooms. The sensitivity of cyanobacteria to arsenate has often been linked to the structural similarities of arsenate and phosphate. Thus, we approached the effect of arsenate with concentrations from 10(-8) to 10(-4) M on Microcystis strain PCC7806 under various phosphate regimes. The present study showed that Microcystis strain PCC7806 was arsenate tolerant up to 10(-4) M. And such tolerance was without reference to both content of intra- and extra-cellular phosphate. It seems that arsenate involved the regulation of microcystin synthesis and cellular polyphosphate contributed to microcystin production of Microcystis responding to arsenate, since there was a positive linear correlation of the cellular microcystin quota with the exposure concentration of arsenate when the cells were not preconditioned to phosphate starvation. It is presumed that arsenate could help to actively export microcystins from living Microcystis cells when preconditioned to phosphate starvation and incubated with the medium containing 1 microM phosphate. This study firstly provided evidence that microcystin content and/or release of Microcystis might be impacted by arsenate if it exists in harmful algal blooms.

Topics: Arsenates; Chlorophyll; Microcystins; Microcystis; Phosphates; Water Pollutants, Chemical

Environmental factors that affect the growth and microcystin production of microcystis have received worldwide attention because of the hazards microcystin poses to environmental safety and public health. Nevertheless, the effects of organic anthropogenic pollution on microcystis are rarely discussed. Gibberellin A(3) (GA(3)) is a vegetable hormone widely used in agriculture and horticulture that can contaminate water as an anthropogenic pollutant. Because of its common occurrence, we studied the effects of GA(3) on growth and microcystin production of Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) PCC7806 with different concentrations (0.001-25mg/L) in batch culture. The control was obtained without gibberellin under the same culture conditions. Growth, estimated by dry weight and cell number, increased after the GA(3) treatment. GA(3) increased the amounts of chlorophyll a, phycocyanin and cellular-soluble protein in the cells of M. aeruginosa PCC7806, but decreased the accumulation of water-soluble carbohydrates. In addition, GA(3) was observed to affect nitrogen absorption of the test algae, but to have no effect on the absorption of phosphorus. The amount of microcystin measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) increased in GA(3) treatment groups, but the stimulatory effects were different in different culture phases. It is suggested that GA(3) increases M. aeruginosa growth by stimulating its absorbance of nitrogen and increasing its ability to use carbohydrates, accordingly increasing cellular pigments and thus finally inducing accumulation of protein and microcystin.

Topics: Carbohydrate Metabolism; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; Gibberellins; Microcystins; Microcystis; Nitrogen; Phosphorus; Phycocyanin; Plant Growth Regulators; Water Pollutants, Chemical

The occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria in the aquatic environment constitutes a serious risk for the ecological balance and the functioning of ecosystems. The presence of cyanotoxins in ecosystems could have eventual adverse effects on aquatic plants, which play an important biological role as primary producers. The original aim of this study was to investigate microcystin (MC) accumulation, detoxication and oxidative stress induction in the free-floating aquatic vascular plant Lemna gibba (Duckweed, Lemnaceae). Experiments were carried out with a range of MC levels, obtained from toxic Microcystis culture extracts (0.075, 0.15, 0.22 and 0.3 microg equiv.MC-LR mL(-1)). During chronic exposure of the plant to MC, we examined the growth, photosynthetic pigment contents and also the physiological behavior related to toxin accumulation, possible biodegradation and stress oxidative processes of L. gibba. For the last reason, changes in peroxidase activity and phenol compound content were determined. This is a first report using phenol compounds as indicators of biotic stress induced by MC contamination in aquatic plants. Following MC exposure, a significant decrease of plant growth and chlorophyll content was observed. Also, it was demonstrated that L. gibba could take up and bio-transform microcystins. A suspected MC degradation metabolite was detected in treated Lemna cells. In response to chronic contamination with MCs, changes in the peroxidase activity and qualitative and quantitative changes in phenolic compounds were observed after 24h of plant exposure. The physiological effects induced by chronic exposure to microcystins confirm that in aquatic ecosystems plants coexisting with toxic cyanobacterial blooms may suffer an important negative ecological impact. This may represent a sanitary risk due to toxin bioaccumulation and biotransfer through the food chain.

Topics: Araceae; Chlorophyll; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Microcystins; Microcystis; Oxidative Stress; Peroxidase; Phenols

Excessive cyanobacterial growth in eutrophic water sources has been a serious environmental problem, and both sight preservation and drinking water production demand control of cyanobacterial growth in water. Ultrasonic treatment was reported to effectively inhibit cyanobacterial growth through vesicle collapsing and cell fracturing, but little was known about the change of cyanobacterial photosynthesis during sonication. This paper examined the ultrasonic inhibition of Microcystis aeruginosa cell growth and extracellular microcystins release, and the instant ultrasonic decreases of antenna complexes like cyanobacterial chlorophyll a and phycocyanins (PC), and the oxygen evolution rate. The results showed that sonication effectively damaged antenna complexes, slowed down the photo-activity, which significantly inhibited the cell growth and microcystins formation and release.

Topics: Cell Proliferation; Chlorophyll; Cyanobacteria; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; Light; Microcystins; Microcystis; Models, Molecular; Oxygen; Photosynthesis; Phycocyanin; Sonication; Time Factors; Ultrasonics

Bio-ceramic filter(BF) and moving-bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) were used for biological pretreatment of Yellow River water in this study. The BF only had slight advantage over MBBR for TOC and ammonia removal. However, like UV254, the average removal rate of THMFP in the BF was much higher than that in the MBBR. UV254 removal did not show obvious correlation with trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) removal. Hexachlorocyclohexane could be effectively removed in both BF and MBBR. As for diatom and cyanobateria removal the MBBR had better performance than the BF, which was contrary to the average chlorophyll-a ( Chl-a) removal rate. The proposal was made in this study that biological flocculation and sedimentation of sloughed biofilm should play a more important role on algae removal in the MBBR than in the BF. The BF and MBBR could effectively remove microcystins. Moreover, MBBR could be a promising technology for biological pretreatment.

Topics: Ammonia; Biofilms; Bioreactors; China; Chlorophyll; Chlorophyll A; Eukaryota; Microcystins; Nitrates; Peptides, Cyclic; Rivers; Water Pollutants, Chemical

The phytoplankton community in three small (0.065-0.249 km2) reservoirs in the stepped plateau landscape in the Kinangop area above the Rift Valley floor in Kenya were studied between 1998 and 2000. Approximately 70 species of phytoplankton were identified. The community was dominated by chlorophytes, cyanobacteria and chrysophytes. Diatoms were rare. The phytoplankton assemblage was frequently dominated by cyanobacteria in the dry season. The phytoplankton assemblage transformed to a mixture of cyanobacteria, chlorophytes and chrysophytes at the onset of the long rains, and mixture of cyanobacteria and chlorophytes after the long rains. Thereafter the phytoplankton assemblage consisted mainly of a mix of cyanobacteria and chrysophytes until the onset of the short rains when cyanobacterial dominance re-emerged. The most common phytoplankton species included Microcystis spp., Botryococcus braunii, Ceratium hirundinella, Anabaena spp. and Euglena viridis. The dry season cyanobacterial blooms produced cyanotoxins that included microcystin and endotoxins. The concentrations were well above the recommended safe limits for drinking water. The patterns of cyanotoxin production showed that the growth of the toxin-producing cyanobacteria was regulated by water temperature, pH and nutrients. The appearance of cyanotoxins in the small reservoirs is a serious public health issue in rural Kenya because such reservoirs are key sources of water for humans, livestock and wildlife.

Topics: Altitude; Animals; Bacterial Toxins; Chlorophyll; Chrysophyta; Cyanobacteria; Endotoxins; Environmental Monitoring; Eutrophication; Fresh Water; Humans; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; Kenya; Microcystins; Peptides, Cyclic; Phytoplankton; Public Health; Seasons; Temperature; Water Supply

Physicochemical and biological water quality, including the microcystin concentration, was investigated from spring to autumn 1999 in the Daechung Reservoir, Korea. The dominant genus in the cyanobacterial blooming season was Microcystis. The microcystin concentration in particulate form increased dramatically from August up to a level of 200 ng liter(-1) in early October and thereafter tended to decrease. The microcystin concentration in dissolved form was about 28% of that of the particulate form. The microcystins detected using a protein phosphatase (PP) inhibition assay were highly correlated with those microcystins detected by a high-performance liquid chromatograph (r = 0.973; P < 0.01). Therefore, the effectiveness of a PP inhibition assay for microcystin detection in a high number of water samples was confirmed as easy, quick, and convenient. The microcystin concentration was highly correlated with the phytoplankton number (r = 0.650; P < 0.01) and chlorophyll-a concentration (r = 0.591; P < 0.01). When the microcystin concentration exceeded about 100 ng liter(-1), the ratio of particulate to dissolved total nitrogen (TN) or total phosphorus (TP) converged at a value of 0.6. Furthermore, the microcystin concentration was lower than 50 ng liter(-1) at a particulate N/P ratio below 8, whereas the microcystin concentration varied quite substantially from 50 to 240 ng liter(-1) at a particulate N/P ratio of >8. Therefore, it seems that the microcystin concentration in water can be estimated and indirectly monitored by analyzing the following: the phytoplankton number and chlorophyll-a concentration, the ratio of the particulate and the dissolved forms of N and P, and the particulate N/P ratio when the dominant genus is toxigenic Microcystis.

Topics: Chlorophyll; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Cyanobacteria; Fresh Water; Korea; Microcystins; Peptides, Cyclic; Seasons; Water Supply