azaspiracid and pectenotoxin-2

Low extraction efficiency (60-81%) of okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin 1 (DTX1) was obtained for 4 out of 5 shellfish species from Washington State (WA), USA, during application of a standard extraction method for determination of lipophilic marine biotoxins by LC-MS/MS as recommended by the European Union Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins (EURLMB). OA and total OA including esters, DTX1, DTX2, and total DTX including esters, azaspiracid 1, 2, and 3 (AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3), pectenotoxin 2 (PTX2), and yessotoxin (YTX) were the toxins examined. Matrix-matched standards prepared from the same control samples used for spike-and-recovery tests were employed to evaluate toxin extraction efficiency and sample clean-up procedures. We adjusted the EURLMB extraction method by either using an acidified methanol extraction or pre-cooking shellfish homogenates at 70 °C for 20 min before EURLMB extraction. Extraction efficiency was improved markedly for OA and DTX1 with both modified methods and for YTX with the pre-cooking step included. However, recoveries were lower for YTX using the acidified methanol extraction and for PTX2 in non-mussel samples with the pre-cooking step. A hexane wash was applied to clean water-diluted non-hydrolyzed samples and a hexane wash was combined with solid-phase extraction for cleaning hydrolyzed samples. Improved sample clean-up, combined with LC-MS/MS adjustments, enabled quantification of U.S. Food and Drug Administration-regulated toxins in five shellfish species from WA with acceptable accuracy using non-matrix matched calibration standards.

Topics: Alkalies; Animals; Chromatography, Liquid; Furans; Lipids; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Methanol; Mollusk Venoms; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Shellfish; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Washington

Lipophilic marine toxins in shellfish pose significant threats to the health of seafood consumers. To assess the contamination status of shellfish by lipophilic marine toxins in the Bohai Sea, nine species of shellfish periodically collected from five representative aquaculture zones throughout a year were analyzed with a method of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Lipophilic marine toxins, including okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), homo-yessotoxin (homo-YTX), azaspiracids (AZA2 and AZA3), gymnodimine (GYM), and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-DesMe-C), were detected in more than 95 percent of the shellfish samples. Toxins PTX2, YTX, 13-DesMe-C and GYM were predominant components detected in shellfish samples. Scallops, clams and mussels accumulated much higher level of lipophilic marine toxins compared to oysters. Toxin content in shellfish samples collected from different sampling locations showed site-specific seasonal variation patterns. High level of toxins was found during the stages from December to February and June to July in Hangu, while from March to April and August to September in Laishan. Some toxic algae, including Dinophysis acuminata, D. fortii, Prorocentrum lima, Gonyaulax spinifera and Lingulodinium polyedrum, were identified as potential origins of lipophilic marine toxins in the Bohai Sea. The results will offer a sound basis for monitoring marine toxins and protecting the health of seafood consumers.

Topics: Animals; Bivalvia; China; Chromatography, Liquid; Dinoflagellida; Furans; Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring; Hydrocarbons, Cyclic; Imines; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusk Venoms; Okadaic Acid; Ostreidae; Oxocins; Pyrans; Seafood; Shellfish; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry; Water Pollutants, Chemical

Some dinoflagellates can produce lipophilic marine toxins, which pose potent threats to seafood consumers. In the Bohai Sea, an important semi-closed inland sea with intensive mariculture industry in China, there is little knowledge concerning lipophilic marine toxins and their potential threats. In this study, net-concentrated phytoplankton samples were periodically collected from 5 typical mariculture zones around the Bohai Sea, including Laishan (LS), Laizhou (LZ), Hangu (HG), Qinhuangdao (QHD) and Huludao (HLD) in 2013 and 2014, and a method using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with a Q-Trap mass spectrometer was applied to analyze seven representative lipophilic marine toxins, including okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), gymnodimine (GYM), and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (desMeC). The method had high sensitivity and repeatability, and exhibited satisfactory recoveries for most of the lipophilic marine toxins (92.1-108%) except for AZA1 (65.8-68.9%). Nearly all the lipophilic marine toxins could be detected in phytoplankton samples from the Bohai Sea. OA, DTX1 and PTX2 were predominant components and present in most of the phytoplankton samples. The maximum content of lipophilic marine toxin in phytoplankton samples concentrated from seawater (OA 464 pg L

Topics: Animals; China; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Dinoflagellida; Furans; Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring; Hydrocarbons, Cyclic; Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions; Imines; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusk Venoms; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Phytoplankton; Pyrans; Seafood; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A freeze-dried mussel tissue (Mytilus edulis) reference material (CRM-FDMT1) was produced containing multiple groups of shellfish toxins. Homogeneity and stability testing showed the material to be fit for purpose. The next phase of work was to assign certified values and uncertainties to 10 analytes from six different toxin groups. Efforts involved optimizing extraction procedures for the various toxin groups and performing measurements using liquid chromatography-based analytical methods. A key aspect of the work was compensating for matrix effects associated with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry through standard addition, dilution, or matrix-matched calibration. Certified mass fraction values are reported as mg/kg of CRM-FDMT1 powder as bottled for azaspiracid-1, -2, and -3 (4.10 ± 0.40; 1.13± 0.10; 0.96 ± 0.10, respectively), okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 and -2 (1.59 ± 0.18; 0.68 ± 0.07; 3.57± 0.33, respectively), yessotoxin (2.49 ± 0.28), pectenotoxin-2 (0.66 ± 0.06), 13-desmethylspirolide-C (2.70 ± 0.26), and domoic acid (126 ± 10). Combined uncertainties for the certified values include contributions from homogeneity, stability, and characterization experiments. The commutability of CRM-FDMT1 was assessed by examining the extractability and matrix effects for the freeze-dried material in comparison with its equivalent wet tissue homogenate. CRM-FDMT1 is the first shellfish matrix CRM with certified values for yessotoxins, pectenotoxins or spirolides, and is the first CRM certified for multiple toxin groups. CRM-FDMT1 is a valuable tool for quality assurance of phycotoxin monitoring programs and for analytical method development and validation. Graphical Abstract CRM-FDMT1 is a multi-toxin mussel tissue certified reference material (CRM) to aid in development and validation of analytical methods for measuring the levels of algal toxins in seafood.

Topics: Animals; Chromatography, Liquid; Freeze Drying; Furans; Kainic Acid; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mass Spectrometry; Mollusk Venoms; Mytilus edulis; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Pyrans; Reference Standards; Seafood; Spiro Compounds

The presence of phytoplankton responsible for the production of lipophilic marine biotoxins is well recognised throughout parts of South America. To date, the quantitation of lipophilic toxins in Argentinean shellfish has been limited to select and highly focussed geographical studies. This work reports the analysis for lipophilic marine biotoxins in shellfish harvested across five regions of Argentina between 1992 and 2012. LC-MS/MS analysis was used for the quantitation of all regulated lipophilic toxins. High concentrations of okadaic acid group toxins were quantified, with a clear dominance of the parent okadaic acid and more than 90% of the toxin present as esters. Results showed DSP toxins in shellfish from the Buenos Aires Province during 2006 and 2007, earlier than previously described. There was also strong evidence linking the presence of okadaic acid to human intoxications. Other lipophilic toxins detected were yessotoxin, pectenotoxin-2 and 13-desMeC spirolide. With evidence published recently for the presence of azaspiracid producers, this work reports the detection of low concentrations of azaspiracid-2 in shellfish. As such the data provides the first published evidence for yessotoxins and azaspiracids in Argentinean shellfish and further evidence for the continuing presence of lipophilic marine toxins in Argentinean waters.

Topics: Animals; Argentina; Chromatography, Liquid; Food Contamination; Furans; Humans; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusk Venoms; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Phytoplankton; Pyrans; Shellfish; Shellfish Poisoning; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

To investigate the prevalence of lipophilic marine biotoxins in shellfish from the Chinese market, we used hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to measure levels of okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid (AZA1), pectenotoxin (PTX2), gymnodimine (GYM), and spirolide (SPX1). We collected and analyzed 291 shellfish samples from main production sites along a wide latitudinal transect along the Chinese coastline from December 2008 to December 2009. Results revealed a patchy distribution of the five toxins and highlighted the specific geographical distribution and seasonal and species variation of the putative toxigenic organisms. All five lipophilic marine biotoxins were found in shellfish samples. The highest concentrations of OA, AZA1, PTX2, GYM, and SPX1 were 37.3, 5.90, 16.4, 14.4, and 8.97 μg/kg, respectively. These values were much lower than the legislation limits for lipophilic shellfish toxins. However, the value might be significantly underestimated for the limited detection toxins. Also, these toxins were found in most coastal areas of China and were present in almost all seasons of the year. Thus, these five toxins represent a potential threat to human health. Consequently, studies should be conducted and measures should be taken to ensure the safety of the harvested product.

Topics: Animals; Bivalvia; China; Chromatography, Liquid; Furans; Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring; Hydrocarbons, Cyclic; Imines; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Okadaic Acid; Ostreidae; Pectinidae; Pyrans; Shellfish; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Graphene is a novel carbonic material with great potentials for the use as sorbent due to its ultrahigh surface area. Herein, we report the use of graphene as sorbent in solid-phase extraction (SPE) using pipette tip as cartridge namely GPT-SPE, together with ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), for the analysis of lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs), including yessotoxins (YTX), okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides-1 (SPX1), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) and azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) in shellfish. The GPT-SPE procedure was optimized and the performance of graphene was fully validated. Results with high-sensitivity and good reproducibility was obtained and compared with that of other sorbents like C18 silica, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), commercial Oasis HLB, and Strata-X for the extraction of LMTs, which showed superiority and advantages of graphene, such as good recoveries, stability and compatibility with various solvents. In order to exhibit the potentials of graphene as an excellent sorbent material, 67 mussel samples from six coastal cities of China were analyzed. OA was found to be the dominant contaminant, while YTX was also detected with low level.

Topics: Adsorption; Animals; Bivalvia; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Furans; Graphite; Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring; Hydrocarbons, Cyclic; Imines; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mollusk Venoms; Muscles; Okadaic Acid; Oxocins; Pyrans; Reproducibility of Results; Sensitivity and Specificity; Shellfish; Solid Phase Extraction; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Combining mass spectrometric tools, a total of 47 in vitro metabolites of okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins 1 and 2 (DTX1 and DTX2), yessotoxin (YTX), azaspiracid1 (AZA1), and pectenotoxin 2 (PTX2) could be detected and confirmed after an incubation with rat liver S9-mix. In a first step, liquid chromatography (LC) combined with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was used as a screening tool for the identification of in vitro metabolites of lipophilic marine biotoxins. Metabolic phase I and phase II reactions were screened for metabolites by calculating and subsequently monitoring theoretical MS transitions. In a second step, metabolites were confirmed by determination of accurate masses using high resolution MS provided by Orbitrap technology. Subsequently, product ion spectra, precursor ion spectra, and MS3 spectra were recorded for structure elucidation of metabolites. While all investigated toxins were found to form various oxygenated metabolites during the oxidative phase I metabolism, those metabolites varied in the number of added oxygen atoms and in the number of individual isomers. No hints were obtained concerning the formation of glutathione adducts, and a conjugation with glucuronic acid was detected for AZA1 only.

Topics: Animals; Furans; Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Interactions; Liver; Macrolides; Male; Marine Toxins; Metabolic Detoxication, Phase I; Metabolic Detoxication, Phase II; Mollusk Venoms; Oxocins; Pyrans; Rats; Shellfish Poisoning; Spiro Compounds; Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is seen as an integral part of methods of choice for the replacement of animal tests in the determination of lipophilic shellfish toxins. However, these techniques are prone to matrix effects that need to be considered when developing and validating methods. The analysis of shellfish is a challenging task due to the complexity of the shellfish matrix and the number of shellfish species encountered in monitoring laboratories. Therefore, it is crucial that the cause and the extent of matrix effects is fully understood in order to apply corrective measures to the analytical method and to develop efficient sample clean-up steps. This paper presents different approaches to evaluate matrix effects associated with the analysis of okadaic acid (OA), azaspiracid-1 (AZA1) and pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) in cooked and raw mussel flesh. Post-extraction addition and standard addition experiments were carried out and analysed using various LC-MS methods. Gradient and isocratic elution were compared and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), using C8 and C18 Acquity BEH columns, was evaluated for the extent of matrix effects. When matrix effects were observed, OA and PTX2 were always prone to signal enhancement and AZA1 to signal suppression. For all the toxins studied, matrix effects were dependent on chromatographic conditions. UPLC separation using a C8 column significantly reduced matrix effects compared to the other conditions assessed. Furthermore, sample dilution has proven to be an efficient way of reducing matrix effects associated with OA analysis.

Topics: Animals; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; Chromatography, Liquid; Food Contamination; Furans; Hot Temperature; Macrolides; Marine Toxins; Mass Spectrometry; Mytilus edulis; Okadaic Acid; Pyrans; Spiro Compounds